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To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.04.018 Byline: Katherine D. Walton (a), Jacob Warner (a), Philip H. Hertzler (b), David R. McClay (a) Keywords: Hedgehog; Patched; Smoothened; Morphogenesis; Endoderm; Mesoderm; Signal transduction Abstract: The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is essential for patterning many structures in vertebrates including the nervous system, chordamesoderm, limb and endodermal organs. In the sea urchin, a basal deuterostome, Hh signaling is shown to participate in organizing the mesoderm. At gastrulation the Hh ligand is expressed by the endoderm downstream of the Brachyury and FoxA transcription factors in the endomesoderm gene regulatory network. The co-receptors Patched (Ptc) and Smoothened (Smo) are expressed by the neighboring skeletogenic and non-skeletogenic mesoderm. Perturbations of Hh, Ptc and Smo cause embryos to develop with skeletal defects and inappropriate non-skeletogenic mesoderm patterning, although initial specification of mesoderm occurs without detectable abnormalities. Perturbations of the pathway caused late defects in skeletogenesis and in the non-skeletogenic mesoderm, including altered numbers of pigment and blastocoelar cells, randomized left-right asymmetry of coelomic pouches, and disorganized circumesophageal muscle causing an inability to swallow. Together the data support the requirement of Hh signaling in patterning each of the mesoderm subtypes in the sea urchin embryo. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Biology, Duke University, Box 90338, Durham, NC 27708, USA (b) Department of Biology, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859, USA Article History: Received 23 May 2008; Revised 30 March 2009; Accepted 17 April 2009

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.04.003 Byline: Shu-Yu Wu, Yu-Ping Yang, David R. McClay Keywords: Twist; Mesoderm; Epithelial-mesenchymal transition; Gene regulatory network; Primary mesenchyme cell; Skeletogenesis Abstract: Recent work on the sea urchin endomesoderm gene regulatory network (GRN) offers many opportunities to study the specification and differentiation of each cell type during early development at a mechanistic level. The mesoderm lineages consist of two cell populations, primary and secondary mesenchyme cells (PMCs and SMCs). The micromere-PMC GRN governs the development of the larval skeleton, which is the exclusive fate of PMCs, and SMCs diverge into four lineages, each with its own GRN state. Here we identify a sea urchin ortholog of the Twist transcription factor, and show that it plays an essential role in the PMC GRN and later is involved in SMC formation. Perturbations of Twist either by morpholino knockdown or by overexpression result in defects in progressive phases of PMC development, including specification, ingression/EMT, differentiation and skeletogenesis. Evidence is presented that Twist expression is required for the maintenance of the PMC specification state, and a reciprocal regulation between Alx1 and Twist offers stability for the subsequent processes, such as PMC differentiation and skeletogenesis. These data illustrate the significance of regulatory state maintenance and continuous progression during cell specification, and the dynamics of the sequential events that depend on those earlier regulatory states. Author Affiliation: Department of Biology, French Family Science Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA Article History: Received 19 September 2007; Revised 16 January 2008; Accepted 1 April 2008

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.08.046 Byline: Wendy S. Beane (a), Ekaterina Voronina (b), Gary M. Wessel (b), David R. McClay (a) Keywords: Ras GTPase; Rho; G protein; Galpha; Dynamin; SRP; Signal recognition particle receptor; Translation; Gene duplication; Phylogenomics; Echinoderm Abstract: In every organism, GTP-binding proteins control many aspects of cell signaling. Here, we examine in silico several GTPase families from the Strongylocentrotus purpuratus genome: the monomeric Ras superfamily, the heterotrimeric G proteins, the dynamin superfamily, the SRP/SR family, and the 'protein biosynthesis' translational GTPases. Identified were 174 GTPases, of which over 90% are expressed in the embryo as shown by tiling array and expressed sequence tag data. Phylogenomic comparisons restricted to Drosophila, Ciona, and humans (protostomes, urochordates, and vertebrates, respectively) revealed both common and unique elements in the expected composition of these families. G[alpha] and dynamin families contain vertebrate expansions, consistent with whole genome duplications, whereas SRP/SR and translational GTPases are highly conserved. Unexpectedly, Ras superfamily analyses revealed several large (5+) lineage-specific expansions in the sea urchin. For Rho, Rab, Arf, and Ras subfamilies, comparing total human gene numbers to the number of sea urchin genes with vertebrate orthologs suggests reduced genomic complexity in the sea urchin. However, gene duplications in the sea urchin increase overall numbers such that total sea urchin gene numbers approximate vertebrate gene numbers for each monomeric GTPase family. These findings suggest that lineage-specific expansions may be an important component of genomic evolution in signal transduction. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Biology, Developmental, Cell and Molecular Group, Duke University, Box 91000, Durham, NC 27708, USA (b) Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, 69 Brown Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA Article History: Received 11 May 2006; Revised 18 August 2006; Accepted 19 August 2006

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.08.064 Byline: Katherine D. Walton, Jenifer C. Croce, Thomas D. Glenn, Shu-Yu Wu, David R. McClay Keywords: Hedgehog; Notch; Endoderm; Mesoderm; Sea urchin Abstract: The Hedgehog (Hh) and Notch signal transduction pathways control a variety of developmental processes including cell fate choice, differentiation, proliferation, patterning and boundary formation. Because many components of these pathways are conserved, it was predicted and confirmed that pathway components are largely intact in the sea urchin genome. Spatial and temporal location of these pathways in the embryo, and their function in development offer added insight into their mechanistic contributions. Accordingly, all major components of both pathways were identified and annotated in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus genome and the embryonic expression of key components was explored. Relationships of the pathway components, and modifiers predicted from the annotation of S. purpuratus, were compared against cnidarians, arthropods, urochordates, and vertebrates. These analyses support the prediction that the pathways are highly conserved through metazoan evolution. Further, the location of these two pathways appears to be conserved among deuterostomes, and in the case of Notch at least, display similar capacities in endomesoderm gene regulatory networks. RNA expression profiles by quantitative PCR and RNA in situ hybridization reveal that Hedgehog is produced by the endoderm beginning just prior to invagination, and signals to the secondary mesenchyme-derived tissues at least until the pluteus larva stage. RNA in situ hybridization of Notch pathway members confirms that Notch functions sequentially in the vegetal-most secondary mesenchyme cells and later in the endoderm. Functional analyses in future studies will embed these pathways into the growing knowledge of gene regulatory networks that govern early specification and morphogenesis. Author Affiliation: Developmental, Cellular, and Molecular Biology Group, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA Article History: Received 10 May 2006; Revised 18 August 2006; Accepted 28 August 2006

A study on the death of cell of sea urchins examines the proteins found in its genome.

A study on cell signaling examines GTP binding proteins in the genome of sea urchin strongylocentrotus purpuratus.

A study on the cellular development and genome sequencing of sea urchins examines their hedgehog and notch pathways. The genetic expression of the sea urchin is studied.

A study examines the Wnt genes present in the genome of echinoderm Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. A phylogenetic study of the proteins present in the gene of the organism is discussed.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.12.031 Byline: Wendy S. Beane (a), Jeffrey M. Gross (b), David R. McClay (a) Keywords: Sea urchin; RhoA; Gastrulation; Invagination; Convergent extension; Brachyury Abstract: During gastrulation, the archenteron is formed using cell shape changes, cell rearrangements, filopodial extensions, and convergent extension movements to elongate and shape the nascent gut tube. How these events are coordinated remains unknown, although much has been learned from careful morphological examinations and molecular perturbations. This study reports that RhoA is necessary to trigger archenteron invagination in the sea urchin embryo. Inhibition of RhoA results in a failure to initiate invagination movements, while constitutively active RhoA induces precocious invagination of the archenteron, complete with the actin rearrangements and extracellular matrix secretions that normally accompany the onset of invagination. Although RhoA activity has been reported to control convergent extension movements in vertebrate embryos, experiments herein show that RhoA activity does not regulate convergent extension movements during sea urchin gastrulation. Instead, the results support the hypothesis that RhoA serves as a trigger to initiate invagination, and once initiation occurs, RhoA activity is no longer involved in subsequent gastrulation movements. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Biology, Developmental, Cell and Molecular Group, Duke University, PO Box 91000, Durham, NC 27708, USA (b) Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A6700, Austin, TX 78712, USA Article History: Received 6 October 2005; Revised 6 December 2005; Accepted 14 December 2005

The role of a GTPase protein, RhoA in triggering invagination during gastrula formation in sea urchin embryos is studied.

Fringe proteins are O-fucose-specific [beta]-1,3 N-acetylglucosanlinyltransferases that glycosylate the extracellular EGF repeats of Notch and enable Notch to be activated by the ligand Delta. In the sea urchin, signaling between Delta and Notch is known to be necessary for specification of secondary mesenchyme cells (SMCs). The Lytechinus variegatus Fringe homologue is expressed in both the signaling and receiving cells during this first Delta-Notch signal. Perturbation of Fringe expression through morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (MO) injection results in fewer SMCs but also causes decreased and delayed archenteron invagination. Partial endoderm specification occurs but expression of some endoderm genes is compromised. The data are consistent with a Fringe-requiting Notch signal as one upstream component of archenteron morphogenesis. Finally, Fringe perturbations result in more severe phenotypes than those previously reported for Notch dominant-negative (Lv[N.sup.neg]) injections or reported here for Notch MO (NMO) injections. Injecting a combination of Lv[N.sup.neg] and NMO results in a more severe phenotype than either treatment alone, and this combination phenocopies the fringe MO embryos. Taken together, the results show that Fringe is necessary both for maternal and zygotic Notch signals, and these Notch signals affect specification of mesoderm and endoderm. Keywords: Sea urchin; Fringe; Notch; Specification; Gastrulation; Morphogenesis; Morpholino antisense oligonucleotide

In the sea urchin embryo, specification of the endomesoderm is accomplished by the activity of a network of regulatory genes in the vegetal hemisphere, called the endomesoderm gene regulatory network (GRN). The activation of this network is mediated primarily through the activity of the Wnt pathway, though details of pathway activation remain unclear. To gain further insight into control of endomesoderm GRN activation, we have identified a sea urchin homologue of the co-repressor Groucho (LvGroucho) that has been shown to antagonize [beta]catenin/Tcf activation complexes during Wnt signaling in other systems. Groucho functions by recruiting the histone deacetylase Rpd3 to the DNA template via interaction with site-specific transcription factors, resulting in localized chromatin condensation and transcriptional silencing. Our results show that the LvGroucho protein localizes to all nuclei throughout embryonic development. Interaction assays demonstrate that LvGroucho interacts with Tcf via both the Q and the WD domains of the protein. LvGroucho interacts with Tcf to antagonize the expression of key endomesoderm regulatory genes. Assays demonstrate that LvGroucho and n[beta]-catenin functionally compete for binding to Tcf as a major mechanism by which the Tcf-control switch is regulated. Functional analysis of the N-terminal AES 197 domain of LvGroucho shows that it is sufficient to recapitulate the function of full-length LvGroucho. This finding strongly supports the conclusion that the effects of LvGro overexpression are due primarily to its interactions with Tcf and not other Groucho interacting partners, since Tcf is the only protein present in the sea urchin known to interact with AES197. Because the Q domain is unable to bind Rpd3, it was expected to behave as a dominant negative LvGroucho. Unexpectedly, overexpression of the Q domain gave functional results similar to LvGroucho and the AES197 domain. This is the first evidence for an inherent repressive function for the Q domain alone. Together, our results indicate that LvGroucho functionally competes with [beta]-catenin for Tcf binding, and this competitive mechanism regulates one of the earliest steps in the initiation of the sea urchin endomesoderm GRN. Keywords: Groucho; [beta]-catenin; Tcf; Endoderm; Mesoderm; Cell fate specification; Sea urchin

The Strongylocentrotus purpuratus hnf6 (Sphnf6) gene encodes a new member of the ONECUT family of transcription factors. The expression of hnf6 in the developing embryo is triphasic, and loss-of-function analysis shows that the Hnf6 protein is a transcription factor that has multiple distinct roles in sea urchin development, hnf6 is expressed maternally, and before gastrulation its transcripts are distributed globally. Early in development, its expression is required for the activation of PMC differentiation genes such as sm50, pm27, and msp130, but not for the activation of any known PMC regulatory genes, for example, alx, ets1, pmar1, or tbrain. Micromere transplantation experiments show that the gene is not involved in early micromere signaling. Early hnf6 expression is also required for expression of the mesodermal regulator gatac. The second known role of hnf6 is its participation after gastrulation in the oral ectoderm gene regulatory network (GRN), in which its expression is essential for the maintenance of the state of oral ectoderm specification. The third role is in the neurogenic ciliated band, which is foreshadowed exactly by a trapezoidal band of hnf6 expression at the border of the oral ectoderm and where it continues to be expressed through the end of embryogenesis. Neither oral ectoderm regulatory functions nor ciliated band formation occur normally in the absence of hnf6 expression. Keywords: Morpholino antisense oligonucleotide; Transcription factor; hnf6; ONECUT; Oral ectoderm; PMC; Sea urchin embryo

The Spdeadringer (Spdri) gene encodes an ARID-class transcription factor not previously known in sea urchin embryos. We show that Spdri is a key player in two separate developmental gene regulatory networks (GRNs). Spdri is expressed in a biphasic manner, first, after 12 h and until ingression in the skeletogenic descendants of the large micromeres; second, after about 20 h in the oral ectoderm, where its transcripts remain present at 30-50 mRNA molecules/cell far into development. In both territories, the periods of Spdri expression follow prior territorial specification events. The functional significance of each phase of expression was assessed by determining the effect of an [alpha]Spdri morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (MASO) on expression of 17 different mesodermal genes, 8 different oral ectoderm genes, and 18 other genes expressed specifically during endomesoderm specification. These effects were measured by quantitative PCR, supplemented by whole-mount in situ hybridization and morphological observations. Spdri is shown to act in the micromere descendants in the pathways that result in the expression of batteries of terminal skeletogenic genes. But, in the oral ectoderm, the same gene participates in the central GRN controlling oral ectoderm identity. Spdri is linked in the oral ectoderm GRN with several other genes encoding transcriptional regulators that are expressed specifically in various regions of the oral ectoderm. If its expression is blocked by treatment with [alpha]Spdri MASO, oral-specific features disappear and expression of the aboral ectoderm marker spec1 encompasses the whole of the ectoderm. In addition to disappearance of the oral ectoderm, morphological consequences of [alpha]Spdri MASO treatment include failure of spiculogenesis and of correct primary mesenchyme cell (pmc) patterning in the postgastrular embryo, and also failure of gastrulation. To further analyze these phenotypes, chimeric embryos were constructed consisting of two labeled micromeres combined with micromereless 4th cleavage host embryos; either the micromeres or the hosts contained [alpha]Spdri MASO. These experiments showed that, while Spdri expression is required autonomously for expression of skeletogenic genes prior to ingression, complete skeletogenesis also requires the expression of oral ectoderm patterning information. Presentation of this information on the oral side of the blastocoel in turn depends on Spdri expression in the oral ectoderm. Failure of gastrulation is not due to indirect interference with endomesodermal specification per se, since all endomesodermal genes tested function normally in [alpha]Spdri MASO embryos. Part of its cause is interference by [alpha]Spdri MASO with a late signaling function on the part of the micromere descendants that is needed to complete clearance of the Soxb1 repressor of gastrulation from the prospective endoderm, but in addition there is a nonautonomous oral ectoderm effect. Keywords: Gene regulatory network; Oral ectoderm; deadringer; Sea urchin embryo

pmarl is a transcription factor in the paired class homeodomain family that was identified and found to be transcribed in micromeres beginning at the fourth cleavage of sea urchin development [Dev. Biol. 246 (2002), 209]. Based on in situ data, molecular perturbation studies, and QPCR data, the recently published gene regulatory network (GRN) model for endomesoderm specification [Science 295 (2002) 1669; Dev. Biol. 246 (2002), 162] places pmarl early in the micromere specification pathway, and upstream of two important micromere induction signals. The goal of this study was to test these three predictions of the network model. A series of embryo chimeras were produced in which pmarl activity was perturbed in one cell that was transplanted to control hosts. At the fourth cleavage, micromeres bearing altered pmarl activity were combined with a normal micromereless host embryo. If [beta]-catenin signaling is blocked, the micromeres remain unspecified and are unable to signal to the host cells. When such [beta]-catenin-blocked micromeres also express Pmarl, all observed micromere functions are rescued. The rescue includes expression of the primary mesenchyme cell (PMC) differentiation program, expression and execution of the Delta signal to induce secondary mesoderm cell (SMC) specification in macromere progeny, and expression of the early endomesoderm induction signal necessary for full specification of the endoderm. Additionally, Pmarl expressed mosaically from inserted DNA constructs causes induction of ectopic Endo 16 in adjacent cells, demonstrating further that Pmarl controls expression of the early endomesoderm induction signal. Based on these experiments, Pmarl is an important transcription factor necessary for initiating the micromere specification program and for the expression of two inductive signals produced by micromeres. Each of the tests we describe supports the placement and function of Pmarl in the endomesoderm GRN model. Keywords: Gene regulatory network; Sox; Delta; [beta]-Catenin; Paired homeodomain

Genomic instructions for development are encoded in arrays of regulatory DNA. These specify large networks of interactions among genes producing transcription factors and signaling components. The architecture of such networks both explains and predicts developmental phenomenology. Although network analysis is yet in its early stages, some fundamental commonalities are already emerging. Two such are the use of multigenic feedback loops to ensure the progressivity of developmental regulatory states and the prevalence of repressive regulatory interactions in spatial control processes. Gene regulatory networks make it possible to explain the process of development in causal terms and eventually will enable the redesign of developmental regulatory circuitry to achieve different outcomes.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-1606(02)00025-8 Byline: Robert E Peterson (a), David R McClay (a) Keywords: Ingression; Epithelial to mesenchymal transition; EMT; Sea urchin; Micromere; Primary mesenchyme cells; PMC; Morphogenesis; GFP; mRNA microinjection Abstract: Sea urchin primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) ingress into the blastocoel during an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migrate along the blastocoelar wall for a period of time, and then settle into a subequatorial ring to form the larval skeleton. Fluorescent-marked blastomeres alone, or in combination with blastomere recombination, were used to track the position of PMCs during the early phases of this movement. Micromeres expressing Golgi-tethered GFP (galtase-GFP) were transplanted onto TRITC-stained hosts (in place of the endogenous micromere) to observe the progeny of a single micromere. Galtase-GFP as a Golgi marker is not transferred between PMCs when the syncytium forms. Thus, the position of cells can be followed relative to beginning position for longer periods than previously reported. The PMC progeny of a single micromere do not disperse upon ingression, but instead remain in a closely associated cluster. Generally, progeny of a single micromere remain in the quadrant of origin. In total, greater than [approximately equal to]94% of labeled PMCs remain within the local region of ingression. By contrast, when a transplanted micromere is placed at the vegetal plate after removing all 4 host micromeres, the resultant PMCs ingress and migrate into all 4 quadrants. Similarly, if 1 blastomere is injected at the 2-cell stage, and later the 2 unlabeled micromeres are removed at the 16-cell stage, the remaining PMCs ingress into all 4 quadrants of the vegetal plate. We conclude that the normal restriction of PMCs to a quadrant is due to mechanical constraint from other micromere-PMCs. If a labeled micromere is placed ectopically at the macromere/mesomere boundary, the PMC progeny ingress ectopically and migrate longitudinally along the animal-vegetal axis only. Injection of galtase-GFP into one blastomere at the 4-cell stage shows a 2-step pattern of localization. At late mesenchyme blastula and early gastrula stages, greater than 90% of GFP-expressing PMCs remain in the injected quadrant, while at mid- to late-gastrula stage and beyond, more PMCs are found outside the injected quadrant. The migration that sets up the asymmetry of the larval skeleton first occurs around mid- to late-gastrula stages, when some PMCs from an aboral quadrant migrate to the adjacent oral quadrant. In all, these data combined with previous data suggest that freshly ingressed PMCs migrate along a longitudinal path toward the animal pole and back toward the vegetal pole. Beginning at mid- to late-gastrula stage, PMCs utilize oral-aboral cues from the ectoderm for the first time. At this time, some aboral PMCs migrate into the adjacent oral quadrant to assist in the formation of the ventrolateral cluster. Author Affiliation: (a) Duke University, DCMB Group, Durham, NC 27710, USA Article History: Received 3 December 2001; Revised 16 October 2002; Accepted 23 October 2002

Sea urchin primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) ingress into the blastocoel during an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migrate along the blastocoelar wall for a period of time, and then settle into a subequatorial ring to form the larval skeleton. Fluorescent-marked blastomeres alone, or in combination with blastomere recombination, were used to track the position of PMCs during the early phases of this movement. Micromeres expressing Golgi-tethered GFP (galtase-GFP) were transplanted onto TRITC-stained hosts (in place of the endogenous micromere) to observe the progeny of a single micromere. Galtase-GFP as a Golgi marker is not transferred between PMCs when the syncytium forms. Thus, the position of cells can be followed relative to beginning position for longer periods than previously reported. The PMC progeny of a single micromere do not disperse upon ingression, but instead remain in a closely associated cluster. Generally, progeny of a single micromere remain in the quadrant of origin. In total, greater than ~94% of labeled PMCs remain within the local region of ingression. By contrast, when a transplanted micromere is placed at the vegetal plate after removing all 4 host micromeres, the resultant PMCs ingress and migrate into all 4 quadrants. Similarly, if 1 blastomere is injected at the 2-cell stage, and later the 2 unlabeled micromeres are removed at the 16-cell stage, the remaining PMCs ingress into all 4 quadrants of the vegetal plate. We conclude that the normal restriction of PMCs to a quadrant is due to mechanical constraint from other micromere-PMCs. If a labeled micromere is placed ectopically at the macromere/mesomere boundary, the PMC progeny ingress ectopically and migrate longitudinally along the animal--vegetal axis only. Injection of galtase-GFP into one blastomere at the 4-cell stage shows a 2-step pattern of localization. At late mesenchyme blastula and early gastrula stages, greater than 90% of GFP-expressing PMCs remain in the injected quadrant, while at mid- to late-gastrula stage and beyond, more PMCs are found outside the injected quadrant. The migration that sets up the asymmetry of the larval skeleton first occurs around mid- to late-gastrula stages, when some PMCs from an aboral quadrant migrate to the adjacent oral quadrant. In all, these data combined with previous data suggest that freshly ingressed PMCs migrate along a longitudinal path toward the animal pole and back toward the vegetal pole. Beginning at mid- to late-gastrula stage, PMCs utilize oral-aboral cues from the ectoderm for the first time. At this time, some aboral PMCs migrate into the adjacent oral quadrant to assist in the formation of the ventrolateral cluster. Keywords: Ingression; Epithelial to mesenchymal transition; EMT; Sea urchin; Micromere; Primary mesenchyme cells; PMC; Morphogenesis; GFP; mRNA microinjection

We present the current form of a provisional DNA sequence-based regulatory gene network that explains in outline how endomesodermal specification in the sea urchin embryo is controlled. The model of the network is in a continuous process of revision and growth as new genes are added and new experimental results become available; see http://www.its.cahech.edu/~mirsky/endomeso.htm (End-mes Gene Network Update) for the latest version. The network contains over 40 genes at present, many newly uncovered in the course of this work, and most encoding DNA-binding transcriptional regulatory factors. The architecture of the network was approached initially by construction of a logic model that integrated the extensive experimental evidence now available on endomesoderm specification. The internal linkages between genes in the network have been determined functionally, by measurement of the effects of regulatory perturbations on the expression of all relevant genes in the network. Five kinds of perturbation have been applied: (1) use of morpholino antisense oligonucleotides targeted to many of the key regulatory genes in the network; (2) transformation of other regulatory factors into dominant repressors by construction of Engrailed repressor domain fusions; (3) ectopic expression of given regulatory factors, from genetic expression constructs and from injected mRNAs; (4) blockade of the [beta]-catenin/Tcf pathway by introduction of mRNA encoding the intracellular domain of cadherin; and (5) blockade of the Notch signaling pathway by introduction of mRNA encoding the extracellular domain of the Notch receptor. The network model predicts the cis-regulatory inputs that link each gene into the network. Therefore, its architecture is testable by cis-regulatory analysis. Strongylocentroms purpuratus and Lytechinus variegatus genomic BAC recombinants that include a large number of the genes in the network have been sequenced and annotated. Tests of the cis-regulatory predictions of the model are greatly facilitated by interspecific computational sequence comparison, which affords a rapid identification of likely cis-regulatory elements in advance of experimental analysis. The network specifies genomically encoded regulatory processes between early cleavage and gastrula stages. These control the specification of the micromere lineage and of the initial [veg.sub.2] endomesodermal domain; the blastula-stage separation of the central [veg.sub.2] mesodermal domain (i.e., the secondary mesenchyme progenitor field) from the peripheral [veg.sub.2] endodermal domain; the stabilization of specification state within these domains; and activation of some downstream differentiation genes. Each of the temporal--spatial phases of specification is represented in a subelement of the network model, that treats regulatory events within the relevant embryonic nuclei at particular stages. Key Words: gene network; sea urchin embryo; gene regulation.

Development of the body plan is controlled by large networks of regulatory genes. A gene regulatory network that controls the specification of endoderm and mesoderm in the sea urchin embryo is summarized here. The network was derived from large-scale perturbation analyses, in combination with computational methodologies, genomic data, cis-regulatory analysis, and molecular embryology. The network contains over 40 genes at present, and each node can be directly verified at the DNA sequence level by cis-regulatory analysis. Its architecture reveals specific and general aspects of development, such as how given cells generate their ordained fates in the embryo and why the process moves inexorably forward in developmental time., The mechanism causing cats to beget cats and fish to beget fish is hardwired in the genomic DNA, because the species specificity of the body plan is the cardinal heritable [...]

Paracentrotus lividus sea urchin nectin (Pl-nectin) is an extracellular matrix (ECM) protein of the sea urchin embryo on the apical surface of the ectoderm and has been shown to be an adhesive substrate for embryonic cells. A monoclonal antibody (McAb) to Pl-nectin was generated that inhibits the adhesion of blastula cells to Pl-nectin-coated substrates in an in vitro functional assay. To examine for possible in vivo functions of Pl-nectin, Fab fragments (Fabs) of Pl-nectin McAb were added to early blastulae. Ingression of primary mesenchyme cells was not affected by Fabs. As control embryos reached the pluteus stage, treated embryos showed a severe inhibition of skeletal elongation and patterning. When the Fabs were injected directly into the blastocoel, even at higher concentration than was applied externally, skeletogenesis was normal. Therefore, the effect of the antibody on spiculogenesis was indirect. The treatment was partially reversible as embryos eventually seemed to recover and elongate spicules, although with an incorrect patterning. Migration of pigment cells was also affected by the Fabs, since they did not disperse throughout the ectoderm but remained clustered in ectopic areas. In contrast, the development of endoderm structures was not affected. Our results indicate that in the sea urchin embryo the appropriate contact of ectodermal cells with outer ECM components is essential for the correct morphogenesis of inner mesodermal structures. Key Words: sea urchin embryo; ECM protein; morphogenesis; skeletogenesis; pigment cells.

The hyaline layer of echinoderm embryos is an extraembryonic matrix that functions as a substrate for cell adhesion through early development. The major constituent of the hyaline layer is the protein hyalin, a fibrillar glycoprotein of approximately 330 kDa that multimerizes in the presence of calcium. Here we provide a molecular characterization of hyalin and identify a region of the protein that is important for its function in cell adhesion. Partial hyalin cDNAs were identified from two sea urchin species, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Lytechinus variegatus, by screening expression libraries with monoclonal antibodies to hyalin. The cDNAs each encode a tandemly arranged series of conserved repeats averaging 84 amino acids. These hyalin repeats are as similar between the two species as they are to repeats within each species, suggesting a strong functional conservation. Analysis of this repeat shows that it is a unique sequence within the GenBank database with only weak similarity to mucoid protein sequences. The hyalin mRNA is approximately 12 kb in length and is present in developing oocytes coincident with the appearance of cortical granules, the vesicle in which the hyalin protein is specifically packaged. The mRNA is present throughout oogenesis but is rapidly lost at oocyte maturation so that eggs and early embryos have no detectable hyalin mRNA. The hyalin protein, however, remains at relatively constant levels throughout development. Thus, all the hyalin protein present during early development, when no RNA is detectable, is maternally derived and exocytosed from cortical granules at fertilization. Hyalin mRNA reaccumulates in embryos beginning at the mesenchyme blastula stage; a RNA gel blot and in situ hybridization analysis of gastrulae and larvae shows a progressive confinement of hyalin mRNA to the aboral ectoderm. Recombinant hyalin containing the tandem repeat region of the protein was expressed in bacteria and is shown to serve as an adhesive substrate, almost equal to that of native hyalin, in cell adhesion assays. This adhesive activity is partially blocked by dilute hyalin monoclonal antibody Tg-HYL to the same extent as that for native hyalin. Thus, this hyalin repeat region appears to contain the ligand for the hyalin cell surface receptor. These data help explain some of the classic functions ascribed to the hyalin protein in early development and now enable investigators to focus on the mechanisms of cell interactions with the hyaline layer. Key Words: hyalin; hyaline layer; cortical granules; fertilization; cell adhesion.

During development, the modulation of cadherin adhesive function is proposed to control various morphogenetic events including epithelial-mesenchymal conversions and tubulogenesis, although the mechanisms responsible for regulating cadherin activity during these events remain unclear. In order to gain insights into the regulation of cadherin function during morphogenesis, we utilized the sea urchin embryo as a model system to study the regulation of cadherin localization during epithelial-mesenchymal conversion and convergent-extension movements. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the cytoplasmic domain of a cloned sea urchin cadherin recognize three major polypeptides of [M.sub.r] 320, 140, and 125 kDa and specifically stain adherens junctions, and to a lesser extent, lateral membrane domains in all epithelial tissues of the embryo. Analysis of embryos during gastrulation demonstrates that changes in cadherin localization are observed in cells undergoing an epithelial-mesenchymal conversion. Ingression of primary mesenchyme cells is accompanied by the rapid loss of junctional cadherin staining and the coincident accumulation of cadherin in intracellular organelles. These data are consistent with the idea that the deadhesion of mesenchymal cells from neighboring epithelial cells involves the regulated endocytosis of cell surface cadherin molecules. Conversely, neither cadherin abundance nor localization is altered in cells of the gut which undergo convergent-extension movements during the formation of the archenteron. This observation indicates that these movements do not require the loss of junctional cadherin molecules. Instead, the necessary balance between adhesion and motility may be achieved by regulating the expression of different subtypes of cadherin molecules or modifying interactions between cadherins and catenins, proteins that bind the cytoplasmic domain of cadherin and are necessary for cadherin adhesive function. To address cadherin function at the molecular level, we used a partial cDNA representing the conserved cytoplasmic domain to identify a novel cadherin molecule in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. The deduced amino acid sequence of LvG-cadherin (for Goliath-cadherin) predicts that it is a transmembrane protein with an apparent relative molecular mass of 303 kDa. The cytoplasmic domain shows significant sequence identity to that of vertebrate classic cadherins. However, the extracellular domain is distinguished from its vertebrate counterparts by both an increased number of cadherin-specific repeats and the presence of four EGF-like repeats proximal to the transmembrane domain. Taken together, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that the sea urchin possesses several cadherins, including a novel member of the cadherin family, and that the dynamic regulation of cadherin localization plays a role in epithelial to mesenchymal conversions during gastrulation. Key Words: cadherin; catenin; cell adhesion; morphogenesis; epithelial-mesenchymal conversion; convergent-extension; sea urchin.

[Beta]-Catenin was originally identified biochemically as a protein that binds E-cadherin in cultured cells and that interaction was later shown to be essential for cadherin function. Independently, armadillo, the [Beta]-catenin homolog in Drosophila melanogaster, was identified as a segment polarity gene necessary for the transduction of wingless (Wnt) signals during embryonic and larval development. Recently, several investigations have also shown that [Beta]-catenin plays a critical role in axial patterning of early Xenopus, zebrafish, and mouse embryos. In these systems, the localization of [Beta]-catenin to the plasma membrane, cytosol, and nucleus is predictive of its role in cell adhesion and signaling. In order to examine the potential role of [Beta]-catenin in regulating cell adhesion during embryogenesis, we cloned [Beta]-catenin in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus and characterized its subcellular distribution in cells undergoing morphogenetic movements. Indicative of a role in the establishment and maintenance of cell adhesion, [Beta]-catenin is associated with lateral cell-cell contacts and accumulates at adherens junctions from cleavage stages onward. At gastrulation, changes in junctional [Beta]-catenin localization accompany several morphogenetic events. The epithelial-mesenchymal conversion that characterizes the ingression of both primary and secondary mesenchyme cells coincides with a rapid and dramatic loss of adherens junction-associated [Beta]-catenin. In addition, epithelial cells in the archenteron display a significant decrease in adherens junction-associated [Beta]catenin levels as they undergo convergent-extension movements. These data are consistent with a role for [Beta]-catenin in regulating cell adhesion and adherens junction function during gastrulation in the sea urchin embryo. Key Words: catenin; cadherin; cell adhesion; gastrulation; morphogenesis; epithelial-mesenchymal conversion; convergent-extension; sea urchin development.

Byline: John C. Matese, Steven Black, David R. McClay Abstract: After fertilization most eggs become surrounded by a complex extracellular matrix. This study examines those matrix assembly processes that are triggered by fertilization of the sea urchin egg. The study uses antibodies that identify five different storage compartments in the egg. These compartments release their protein contents in a highly regulated fashion to assemble and modify the extraembryonic layers. The exocytosis sequence begins with a fertilization wave that progresses from the site of sperm entry and elevates the fertilization envelope above a water-filled perivitelline space. The immediate surface of the zygote then becomes covered by a newly secreted hyaline layer. Prior to fertilization some of the antigens are localized to cortical granules. Others are found in 'basal laminar vesicles' that are released in a wave beginning at about 30 sec, or roughly at the same time as cortical granule exocytosis. The remaining antigens are exocytosed with a rather precise timing, but with a delay of several to tens of minutes relative to the first wave of exocytosis. 'Apical vesicles,' so named because antigens from this class are preferentially exocytosed toward the apical cell surface of polarized cells, include antigens that are exocytosed beginning at about 5 min postfertilization. The fourth compartment, named 'echinonectin vesicles' release echinonectin, a protein that is deposited to the inner side of the hyaline layer. Surface staining of echinonectin is first detected about 10-15 min following sperm contact. Finally, maternal cadherin, which is stored in yet a fifth distinct compartment, is not detected on the surface until at least 30 min following fertilization. The data are also consistent with the notion that the tightly regulated timing of exocytosis contributes to the ordered assembly of the hyaline layer and elevation of the fertilization envelope. Finally, two of the vesicle classes continue to exocytose after the cells become polarized. In polarized cells apical and basal laminar antigens are trafficked toward opposite sides of the same cell after passing through the same trans-Golgi network-like compartment. Author Affiliation: Developmental, Cell and Molecular Biology Group, Box 91000, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA Article History: Received 24 December 1996; Accepted 7 April 1997

We report the molecular cloning of the first [Beta]-1,3 glucanase from animal tissue. Three peptide sequences were obtained from [Beta]-1,3 glucanase that had been purified from eggs of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and the gene was cloned by PCR using oligonucleotides deduced from the peptide sequences. The full-length cDNA shows a predicted enzyme structure of 499 aa with a hydrophobic signal sequence. A 3.2-kb message is present in eggs, during early embryogenesis, and in adult gut tissue. A polyclonal antibody to the native 68-kDa enzyme recognizes a single band during early embryogenesis that reappears in the adult gut, and recognizes a 57-kDa fusion protein made from a full-length cDNA clone for [Beta]-1,3 glucanase. The identity of this molecule as [Beta]-1,3 glucanase is confirmed by sequence homology, by the presence of all three peptide sequences in the deduced amino acid sequence, and by the recognition of the bacterial fusion protein by the antibody directed against the native enzyme. Data base searches show significant homology at the amino acid level to [Beta]-1,3 glucanases from two species of bacteria and a clotting factor from the horseshoe crab. The homology with the bacteria is centered in a 304-aa region in which there are seven scattered regions of high homology between the four divergent species. These four species were also found to have two homologous regions in common with more distantly related plant, fungal, and bacterial proteins. A global phylogeny based on these regions strongly suggests that the glucanases are a very ancient family of genes. In particular, there is an especially deep split within genes taken from the bacterial genus Bacillus.

An analysis of skeletal formation specified independently by primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) or through instructive interactions with the ectoderm revealed that some of the PMCs determined skeleton formation in chimeric embryos. The ectoderm ensures spatial and temporal information for the accurate positioning and timing of skeletogenesis.

Analysis of the ultrastructure of hyalin from the sea urchin embryo revealed that the it is a filamentous molecule about 75 nanometers long. The molecule was shown to have a globular head about 12 nanometers wide. Hyalin molecules form aggregates by head to head associations. Analysis of previous data indicates that the molecule has several binding sites. Immunoprecipitation analysis and examination of in vitro protein translation of hyalin indicate that lower molecular weight precursors exist.

By comparing the spatial and temporal distribution of three proteins during early development in seven echinoid species, we demonstrate that both heterochronies and heterotopies in gene-product expression have accompanied the radiation of post-Paleozoic echinoids. All three proteins examined showed significant alterations in time of expression, site of expression, or both. These molecular heterochronies and heterotopies indicate that early development is not necessarily as evolutionarily conservative as morphology of embryos alone would suggest. Evolutionary alterations in early development may be more common than is generally assumed.

The studies described here sought to identify and characterize genes involved in the gastrulation and morphogenetic movements that occur during sea urchin embryogenesis. An orthologue of the T-box family transcription factor, Brachyury, was cloned through a candidate gene approach. Brachyury (T) is the founding member of this T-box transcription factor family and has been implicated in gastrulation movements in Xenopus, zebrafish, and mouse embryogenesis. Polyclonal serum was generated to LvBrac in order to characterize protein expression. LvBrac initially appears at mesenchyme blastula stage in two distinct regions with embryonic expression perduring until pluteus stage. Vegetally, LvBrac expression is in endoderm and lies circumferentially around the blastopore. This torus-shaped area of LvBrac expression remains constant in size as endoderm cells express LvBrac upon moving into that circumference and cease LvBrac expression as they leave the circumference. Vegetal expression remains around the anus through pluteus stage. The second domain of LvBrac expression first appears broadly in the oral ectoderm at mesenchyme blastula stage and at later embryonic stages is refined to just the stomodael opening. Vegetal LvBrac expression depends on autonomous [beta]-catenin signaling in macromeres and does not require micromere or veg2-inductive signals. It was then determined that LvBrac is necessary for the morphogenetic movements occurring in both expression regions. A dominant-interfering construct was generated by fusing the DNA binding domain of LvBrac to the transcriptional repression module of the Drosophila Engrailed gene in order to perturb gene function. Microinjection of mRNA encoding this LvBrac-EN construct resulted in a block in gastrulation movements but not expression of endoderm and mesoderm marker genes. Furthermore, injection of LvBrac-EN into one of two blastomeres resulted in normal gastrulation movements of tissues derived from the injected blastomere, indicating that LvBrac downstream function may be nonautonomous during sea urchin gastrulation. Key Words: Brachyury (T); sea urchin; gastrulation; morphogenesis.

At gastrulation in the sea urchin embryo dramatic cell adhesion changes contribute to primary mesenchyme cell ingression movements and to cell rearrangements during archenteron invagination. At ingression, quantitative adhesion assays demonstrated previously that primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) change their affinity for neighboring cells, for a fibronectin-like substrate, and for the hyaline layer. To investigate the molecular basis for these and other differential cell affinities at gastrulation, we have identified an integrin that appears to be responsible for specific alterations in cell-substrate adhesion to laminin. During early cleavage stages blastomeres adhere poorly to laminin substrates. Around hatching there is a large increase in the ability of blastomeres to bind to laminin and this increase correlates temporally with the expression of an integrin on the basal surface all blastomeres. PMCs, after undergoing their epithelial-mesenchymal transition, have a strongly reduced affinity for laminin relative to ectoderm cells and, correspondingly, do not stain for the presence of the integrin. We identified the [Alpha] integrin cDNA from Lytechinus variegatus by RT-PCR. Overlapping clones were obtained from a midgastrula cDNA library to provide a complete sequence for the integrin. The composite cDNA encoded a protein that was most similar to the [Alpha]5 subgroup of vertebrate integrins, but there was not a definitive vertebrate integrin homolog. Northern blots and Western immunoblots showed that the sea urchin integrin, which we have named [Alpha]SU2, is present in eggs and during all stages of development. Immunolocalization with specific polyclonal antibodies showed that [Alpha]SU2 first appears on the basal cell surface of epithelia at the midblastula stage, at a time correlating with the increase in adhesive affinity for laminin. The protein remains at high levels on the basal surface of ectoderm cells but is temporarily reduced or eliminated from endoderm cells during their convergent-extension movements. To confirm integrin binding specificity, [Alpha]SU2 was transfected into an [Alpha]-integrin-deficient CHO cell line. [Alpha]SU2-expressing CHO cells bound well to isolated sea urchin basal lamina and to purified laminin. The transfected cells bound weakly or not at all to fibronectin, type I collagen, and type IV collagen. This is consistent with the hypothesis that [Alpha]SU2 integrin functions by binding epithelial cells to laminin in the basal lamina. In vivo, modulation of [Alpha]SU2 integrin expression correlates with critical adhesive changes during cleavage and gastrulation. Thus, this protein appears to be an important contributor to the morphogenetic rearrangements that characterize gastrulation in the sea urchin embryo. Key Words: [Alpha] integrin; laminin; basal lamina; sea urchin.