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The study aimed at zero-waste utilization of fish processing streams for cultivation of microalgae Galdieria sulphuraria. Wastewater from a fish processing facility, slam (mix of used fish feed and faeces), and dried pellet (sediments after enzymatic hydrolysis of rainbow trout) were investigated as potential sources of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphate for cultivation of G. sulphuraria. The pellet extract was found to support the growth of G. sulphuraria when appropriate diluted, at concentrations below 40 % (v/v). It was revealed that wastewater does not impact the growth negatively, however free amino nitrogen and carbon sources need to be supplied from another source. Therefore, only proteolyzed pellet extract (20 %, v/v) was selected for upscaling and a biomass concentration of 80 g L -1 (growth rate was 0.72 day -1 ) was achieved in a non-sterile fed-batch culture. Even though biomass was produced under non-sterile conditions no pathogens such as Salmonella sp. could be detected., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Janna Cropotova reports article publishing charges was provided by Norwegian University of Science and Technology., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The modern food system is characterized with high environmental impact, which is in many cases associated with increased rates of animal production and overconsumption. The adoption of alternatives to meat proteins (insects, plants, mycoprotein, microalgae, cultured meat, etc.) might potentially influence the environmental impact and human health in a positive or negative way but could also trigger indirect impacts with higher consumption rates. Current review provides a condensed analysis on potential environmental impacts, resource consumption rates and unintended trade-offs associated with integration of alternative proteins in complex global food system in the form of meat substitutes. We focus on emissions of greenhouse gases, land use, non-renewable energy use and water footprint highlighted for both ingredients used for meat substitutes and ready products. The benefits and limitations of meat substitution are highlighted in relation to a weight and protein content. The analysis of the recent research literature allowed us to define issues, that require the attention of future studies., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2022 The Author(s).)

Seafood processing creates enormous amounts of side-streams. This review deals with the use of seafood side-streams for transformation into valuable products and identifies suitable approaches for making use of it for different purposes. Starting at the stage of catching fish to its selling point, many of the fish parts, such as head, skin, tail, fillet cut-offs, and the viscera, are wasted. These parts are rich in proteins, enzymes, healthy fatty acids such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated ones, gelatin, and collagen. The valuable biochemical composition makes it worth discussing paths through which seafood side-streams can be turned into valuable products. Drawbacks, as well as challenges of different aquacultures, demonstrate the importance of using the various side-streams to produce valuable compounds to improve economic performance efficiency and sustainability of aquaculture. In this review, conventional and novel utilization approaches, as well as a combination of both, have been identified, which will lead to the development of sustainable production chains and the emergence of new bio-based products in the future.

Large amounts of food are wasted and valuable contents are not utilized completely. Methods to process such wastes into biomass of defined composition automatically and in decentralized locations are lacking. Thus, this study presents a modular design for residue utilization and continuous production of the heterotrophic alga Galdieria sulphuraria. A life cycle and economic assessment are carried out on the hypothetical design to define whether the proposed system can be ecologically and economically viable. Producing one kg of dried biomass would cost 4.38 € and be associated with 3.8 kg CO 2 eq emitted, 69.9 MJ of non-renewable energy use, and 0.09 m 2 of land occupation. Sustainability is comparable to conventional protein sources, with further improvement foreseen through avoidance of drying. These results demonstrate how circular bioeconomy potentials of residues could be realized using heterotrophic G. sulphuraria. It highlights key issues of developing an environmentally and economically sustainable concept., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is one of the most important long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), with numerous health benefits. Crypthecodinium cohnii , a marine heterotrophic dinoflagellate, is successfully used for the industrial production of DHA because it can accumulate DHA at high concentrations within the cells. Glycerol is an interesting renewable substrate for DHA production since it is a by-product of biodiesel production and other industries, and is globally generated in large quantities. The DHA production potential from glycerol, ethanol and glucose is compared by combining fermentation experiments with the pathway-scale kinetic modeling and constraint-based stoichiometric modeling of C. cohnii metabolism. Glycerol has the slowest biomass growth rate among the tested substrates. This is partially compensated by the highest PUFAs fraction, where DHA is dominant. Mathematical modeling reveals that glycerol has the best experimentally observed carbon transformation rate into biomass, reaching the closest values to the theoretical upper limit. In addition to our observations, the published experimental evidence indicates that crude glycerol is readily consumed by C. cohnii, making glycerol an attractive substrate for DHA production.

The aim of this study was to perform a Life Cycle Assessment of a production process of 1 kg dry algal biomass powder (Galdieria sulphuraria) with 27 % (w/w) protein content for human consumption for optimizing the production regarding global warming potential and resource efficiency in combination with food waste utilization. It was investigated, underpinned by a comparison of the use of conventional glucose, whether and to what extent the environmental impact/global warming potential can be reduced by changing to food waste hydrolysate and how this can lead to a more sustainable use of resources and a sustainable development. Overall, the results showed that hydrolysis, along with freeze-drying, caused most of the overall impact. The carbon footprint associated with the use of hydrolyzed food waste was 11% higher than using conventional glucose and supplementary nutrients mainly driven by the high demand of energy for hydrolysis., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Non-sterile heterotrophic cultivation of Galdieria sulphuraria in presence of digestate as well as straw after hydrolysis was investigated. G. sulphuraria can be grown in pure digestate at rates of 0.9 day -1 with glucose. However, a proteolytic treatment of digestate resulted in increased growth rates (1.2 day -1 ) and doubled cell concentrations. Furthermore, G. sulphuraria can utilize glucose obtained after straw hydrolysis. Biomass yields in glucose limited cultures were around 0.9 g per g glucose, while only 0.2 g biomass was formed per g glucose in glucose sufficient cultures. Biomass composition (w/w) of G. sulphuraria grown in digestate supplemented with straw hydrolysate consisted of 20% carbohydrates, 37% proteins and 3% lipids. This study revealed the potential to utilize agricultural waste streams to form algal biomass rich in proteins and may pave the way to novel utilization strategies to be implemented in rural areas., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Microalgae cultivation for food purposes could have high environmental impacts. The study performed life cycle assessment (LCA) of hypothetical model combining phototrophic and heterotrophic cultivations, exchanging produced gases (carbon dioxide from heterotrophic and oxygen from autotrophic) as a potential strategy to reduce the environmental impact of microalgae cultivation. The LCA indicated that the production of Galdieria sulphuraria in a combined cultivation system has environmental benefits compared with the separate phototrophic cultivation and an almost twice lower carbon footprint than phototrophic cultivation. The benefits are based on the lower volume of culture broth and consequently reduced energy demand as well as less demanding wastewater treatment of the heterotrophic cultivation. Such combination of cultivation activities could be recommended to the producers dealing with phototrophic cultivation as a sustainable strategy for the environmental impact reduction., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this mini-review with own results was an identification of techniques to suppress the growth of microbial contaminants under photo- and mixotrophic conditions. Techniques identified are the modification of environmental conditions, such as pH, oxygen, and nutrient concentrations, as well as the application of pulsed electric field, ultrasonication, and surfactants. In phototrophic cultivations, the mentioned techniques result in a decrease of number of predatory cells, but not in a complete removal. Measures to suppress the growth of contaminations (e.g., bacteria and fungi) in mixotrophic cultivations could not be identified. The co-cultivation of algae and fungi, however, was found to be beneficial for the utilization of unusual carbon compounds (e.g., phenolic compounds).

This work presents examples of non-sterile mixed culture fermentation of food waste with a cultivated indigenous consortium (IC) gained from food waste, which produces lactic and acetic acids, combined with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which produces ethanol. All results are flanked by microbial analysis to monitor changes in microbial community. At pH 6 and inoculated with yeast or IC, or both mixed sugars conversion was equal to 71%, 51%, or 67%, respectively. Under pH unregulated conditions metabolic yields were 71%, 67%, or up to 81%. While final titer of acetic acid was not affected by pH (100-200 mM), ethanol and lactic acid titers were. Using mixed culture and pH 6, sugars were almost equally used for formation of ethanol and lactic acid (400-500 mM). However, under pH unregulated conditions 80% of the substrate was converted into ethanol (900-1000 mM)., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

An estimation of the economy of Hermetia illucens and Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultivations as food waste treatment with benefits was carried out. For both organisms, a process scale was assumed to treat 56.3 t of wet food waste per day, which is equivalent to the amount of food waste appearing in a catchment area of 141,000 inhabitants. Using hypothetical insect and heterotrophic microalgae cultivation processes, a daily production of 3.64 t and 7.14 t dried biomass, respectively, can be achieved. For the cultivation of H. illucens, equipment and daily operational costs were estimated at 79,358.15 € and 5,281.56 €, respectively. Equipment and operational costs for the C. pyrenoidosa cultivation was 50 and 6 times higher, respectively. The higher costs reflect the more complex and advanced process compared to H. illucens cultivation. The internal return rate for a plant lifetime of 20 times revealed an economic benefit when C. pyrenoidosa biomass is produced. Nevertheless, both processes were found economically feasible when dried biomass is directly commercialized as food without any further downstream processing. However, extraction and purification of special chemicals, such as unsaturated fatty acids and pigments, can significantly increase the revenue., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Sustainable chemistry is a broad framework that starts with the function that a chemical product is offering. Not only chemical but also economic and ethical aspects come into focus throughout the complete lifecycle of chemical products. Green chemistry is an important building block for sustainable chemistry and addresses the issue of greener synthesis and, to a certain degree, the more benign properties of chemicals. The principles of green chemistry clearly aim at making chemical reactions and processes more environmentally friendly. Aspects such as atom efficiency, energy efficiency, harmless reactants, renewable resources, and pollution prevention are considered. Despite the progress made toward a "greener" chemistry, biotechnological processes, as processes for the conversion of biomass into value-added products, have not been properly adapted to new developments. Processes used in industrial biotechnology are predominantly linear. This review elaborates on the potential contributions of green chemistry to industrial biotechnology and vice versa. Examples are presented of how green chemistry and biotechnology can be connected to make substrate supply, upstream and downstream processing, and product formation more sustainable. The chapter ends with a case study of adipic acid production from lignin to illustrate the importance of a strong connection between green chemistry and biotechnology.

Agricultural residues pose a valuable resource. Through microbial fermentations, a variety of products can be obtained, ranging from fuels to platform chemicals. Depending on the nature of the organic residue, pretreatment and hydrolysis are needed prior to fermentation in order to release fermentable sugars. Continuous set-ups are common for the production of methane or ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass, however, this does not apply for the fermentative generation of biochemicals, an approach that conserves chemical functionality present in biomass. Certainly, continuous set-ups could beneficially contribute to bioeconomy by providing techniques allowing the production of biochemicals in a sustainable and efficient way. This review summarizes research conducted on the continuous pretreatment, hydrolysis, and fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass, and particularly towards the production of the biobased molecules: Succinic and lactic acid., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Non-sterile lactic acid (LA) fermentation of highly viscous food waste was demonstrated in batch and continuous flow fermentations. With Streptococcus sp., an indigenous consortium, and/or applied glucoamylase, food waste was fermented without addition of external carbon or nitrogen sources. Experimental results were used for economic and energy evaluations under consideration of different catchment area sizes from 50,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants. During batch mode, addition of glucoamylase resulted in a titer (after 24 h), yield, and productivity of 50 g L -1 , 63%, and 2.93 g L -1 h -1 , respectively. While titer and yield were enhanced, productivity was lower during continuous operation and 69 g L -1 , 86%, and 1.27 g L -1 h -1 were obtained at a dilution rate of 0.44 d -1 when glucoamylase was added. Both batch and continuous flow fermentations were found economically profitable with food waste from 200,000 or more inhabitants., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Depending on the purpose and use, bioprocesses are carried out in order to reduce, maintain or increase the molar O/C ratio of biomass as the initial substrate. Cascade use considers the holistic and efficient use of biomass. In the current debate of biomass use, however, one may admit that an efficient use of biomass can further be based on the maintenance of initially present molar O/C ratio and functionality. In this regard, what compound should be formed that possesses highest functionality and similar molar O/C ratio as the substrate? How much energy should be spent on bioprocesses for the conversion of biomass under aerobic or anaerobic conditions? This study discusses and contributes to the efficiency assessment of aerobic and anaerobic bioprocesses based on chemical functionality and molar O/C ratio and their scale-depended energy need for creating appropriate environmental conditions for biological agents., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe author declares that he has no conflict of interest in the publication.

This communication elaborates on the use of seashell powder (SP) for the removal of phosphate from lactic acid-containing fermentation broth. Despite extensive past research regarding the application of SP for phosphate removal from wastewater, no information is available for solutions containing various organic compounds. In order to fill this knowledge gap, tests were performed with pure phosphate solution (PPS) and PPS containing 0.83 M of three alcohols, ethanol, propanol or 1,2-propanediol, or 0.83 M of three organic acids, acetic, propionic or lactic acid. Furthermore, a real fermentation broth (RFB) obtained from the fermentative production of lactic acid from food waste was tested. Using 4.8 g SP, more than 95% of phosphate, present at an initial concentration of 50 mg L -1 , could be removed from PPS and PPS containing alcohols after 120 min. The presence of organic acids reduced the removal capacity of SP and only 55%-73% of the phosphate initially present was removed. The presence of lactic acid also substantially affected the removal of phosphate from RFB when 132 mg L -1 phosphate was initially present: after 120 min, only 28.6 mg L -1 of phosphate had been removed. The results indicate the use of SP for phosphate removal from fermentation broth, contributing to multi-component utilization of fermentation broth. However, the effects of respective fermentation products on removal capacity should first be tested., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Biotechnological processes are promising alternatives to petrochemical routes for overcoming the challenges of resource depletion in the future in a sustainable way. The strategies of white biotechnology allow the utilization of inexpensive and renewable resources for the production of a broad range of bio-based compounds. Renewable resources, such as agricultural residues or residues from food production, are produced in large amounts have been shown to be promising carbon and/or nitrogen sources. This chapter focuses on the biotechnological production of lactic acid, acrylic acid, succinic acid, muconic acid, and lactobionic acid from renewable residues, these products being used as monomers for bio-based material and/or as food supplements. These five acids have high economic values and the potential to overcome the "valley of death" between laboratory/pilot scale and commercial/industrial scale. This chapter also provides an overview of the production strategies, including microbial strain development, used to convert renewable resources into value-added products.

Cis,cis-muconic acid (MA) is a chemical that is recognized for its industrial value and is synthetically accessible from aromatic compounds. This feature provides the attractive possibility of producing MA from mixtures of aromatics found in depolymerized lignin, the most underutilized lignocellulosic biopolymer. Based on the metabolic pathway, the catechol (1,2-dihydroxybenzene) node is the central element of this type of production process: (i) all upper catabolic pathways of aromatics converge at catechol as the central intermediate, (ii) catechol itself is frequently generated during lignin pre-processing, and (iii) catechol is directly converted to the target product MA by catechol 1,2-dioxygenase. However, catechol is highly toxic, which poses a challenge for the bio-production of MA. In this study, the soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was upgraded to a fully genome-based host for the production of MA from catechol and upstream aromatics. At the core of the cell factories created was a designed synthetic pathway module, comprising both native catechol 1,2-dioxygenases, catA and catA2, under the control of the P cat promoter. The pathway module increased catechol tolerance, catechol 1,2-dioxygenase levels, and catechol conversion rates. MA, the formed product, acted as an inducer of the module, triggering continuous expression. Cellular energy level and ATP yield were identified as critical parameters during catechol-based production. The engineered MA-6 strain achieved an MA titer of 64.2 g L -1 from catechol in a fed-batch process, which repeatedly regenerated the energy levels via specific feed pauses. The developed process was successfully transferred to the pilot scale to produce kilograms of MA at 97.9% purity. The MA-9 strain, equipped with a phenol hydroxylase, used phenol to produce MA and additionally converted o-cresol, m-cresol, and p-cresol to specific methylated variants of MA. This strain was used to demonstrate the entire value chain. Following hydrothermal depolymerization of softwood lignin to catechol, phenol and cresols, MA-9 accumulated 13 g L -1 MA and small amounts of 3-methyl MA, which were hydrogenated to adipic acid and its methylated derivative to polymerize nylon from lignin for the first time., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Various organic residues occur globally in the form of straw, wood, green biomass, food waste, feces, manure etc. Other utilization strategies apart from anaerobic digestion, composting and incineration are needed to make use of the whole potential of organic residues as sources of various value added compounds. This review compares the cultivation of heterotrophic microalgae and insects using organic residues as nutrient sources and illuminates their potential with regard to biomass production, productivity and yield, and utilization strategies of produced biomasses. Furthermore, cultivation processes as well as advantages and disadvantages of utilization processes are identified and discussed. It was shown that both heterotrophic algae and insects are able to reduce a sufficient amount of organic residues by converting it into biomass. The biomass composition of both organisms is similar which allows similar utilization strategies in food and feed, chemicals and materials productions. Even though insect is the more complex organism, biomass production can be carried out using simple equipment without sterilization and hydrolysis of organic residues. Contrarily, heterotrophic microalgae require a pretreatment of organic residues in form of sterilization and in most cases hydrolysis. Interestingly, the volumetric productivity of insect biomass exceeds the productivity of algal biomass. Despite legal restrictions, it is expected that microalgae and insects will find application as alternative food and feed sources in the future., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Each year, 1.3 billion tons of food waste is generated globally. This waste traces back to industrial and agricultural producers, bakeries, restaurants, and households. Furthermore, lignocellulosic materials, including grass clippings, leaves, bushes, shrubs, and woods, appear in large amounts. Depending on the region, organic waste is either composted, burned directly, or converted into biogas. All of the options set aside the fact that organic residues are valuable resources containing carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and phosphorus. Firstly, it is clear that avoidance of organic residues is imperative. However, the residues that accumulate nonetheless should be utilized by material means before energy production is targeted. This review presents different processes for the microbial utilization of organic residues towards compounds that are of great importance for the bioeconomy. The focus thereby is on the challenges coming along with downstream processing when the utilization of organic residues is carried out decentralized. Furthermore, a future process for producing lactic acid from organic residues is sketched.

The lack of protein sources in Europe could be reduced with onsite production of microalgae with autotrophic and heterotrophic systems, owing the confirmation of economic and environmental benefits. This study aimed at the life cycle assessment (LCA) of microalgae and cyanobacteria cultivation (Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis) in autotrophic and heterotrophic conditions on a pilot industrial scale (in model conditions of Berlin, Germany) with further biomass processing for food and feed products. The comparison of analysis results with traditional benchmarks (protein concentrates) indicated higher environmental impact of microalgae protein powders. However high-moisture extrusion of heterotrophic cultivated C. vulgaris resulted in more environmentally sustainable product than pork and beef. Further optimization of production with Chlorella pyrenoidosa on hydrolyzed food waste could reduce environmental impact in 4.5 times and create one of the most sustainable sources of proteins., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This work concerns the investigation of the sequential production of lactic acid (LA) and biogas from food waste (FW). LA was produced from FW using a Streptococcus sp. strain via simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). Via SHF a yield of 0.33g LA /g FW (productivity 3.38g LA /L·h) and via SSF 0.29g LA /g FW (productivity 2.08g LA /L·h) was obtained. Fermentation residues and FW underwent anaerobic digestion (3wt% TS). Biogas yields were 0.71, 0.74 and 0.90Nm 3 /kg VS for FW and residues from SSF and SHF respectively. The innovation of the approach is considering the conversion of FW into two different products through a biorefinery concept, therefore making economically feasible LA production and valorising its fermentative residues. Finally, a mass balance of three different outlines with the aim to assess the amount of LA and biogas that may be generated within different scenarios is presented., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Galdieria sulphuraria 074G (Rhodophyta) was grown heterotrophically in defined medium and on amylolytic and proteolytic hydrolysed food waste from restaurants and bakeries. Substrate uptake, growth, and phycocyanin content were quantified in the cultures. The alga utilised carbohydrates and amino acids from the waste but ammonium and other inorganic nutrients were needed to stimulate phycocyanin synthesis. Highest specific phycocyanin contents (20-22mgg -1 ) were observed in cells grown at 25°C or 34°C on the food wastes. Growth inhibition was observed when the hydrolysates were used in quantities resulting in glucose concentrations of 10 and 50gL -1 for bakery and restaurant waste, respectively. Still, G. sulphuraria 074G grew and produced phycocyanin efficiently on food waste under adequate conditions and may potentially be utilised for synthesise of high-valuable products from food waste., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, the lignocellulosic residue coffee pulp was used as carbon source in fermentative l(+)-lactic acid production using Bacillus coagulans. After thermo-chemical treatment at 121°C for 30min in presence of 0.18molL(-1) H2SO4 and following an enzymatic digestion using Accellerase 1500 carbon-rich hydrolysates were obtained. Two different coffee pulp materials with comparable biomass composition were used, but sugar concentrations in hydrolysates showed variations. The primary sugars were (gL(-1)) glucose (20-30), xylose (15-25), sucrose (5-11) and arabinose (0.7-10). Fermentations were carried out at laboratory (2L) and pilot (50L) scales in presence of 10gL(-1) yeast extract. At pilot scale carbon utilization and lactic acid yield per gram of sugar consumed were 94.65% and 0.78gg(-1), respectively. The productivity was 4.02gL(-1)h(-1). Downstream processing resulted in a pure formulation containing 937gL(-1)l(+)-lactic acid with an optical purity of 99.7%., (Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

In this study, mucilage, a residue from coffee production, was investigated as substrate in fermentative l(+)-lactic acid production. Mucilage was provided as liquid suspension consisting glucose, galactose, fructose, xylose and sucrose as free sugars (up to 60gL(-1)), and used directly as medium in Bacillus coagulans batch fermentations carried out at 2 and 50L scales. Using mucilage and 5gL(-1) yeast extract as additional nitrogen source, more than 40gL(-1) lactic acid was obtained. Productivity and yield were 4-5gL(-1)h(-1) and 0.70-0.77g lactic acid per g of free sugars, respectively, irrespective the scale. Similar yield was found when no yeast extract was supplied, the productivity, however, was 1.5gL(-1)h(-1). Down-stream processing of culture broth, including filtration, electrodialysis, ion exchange chromatography and distillation, resulted in a pure lactic acid formulation containing 930gL(-1)l(+)-lactic acid. Optical purity was 99.8%., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A drawback of biotechnological processes, where microorganisms convert biomass constituents, such as starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lipids, and proteins, into wanted products, is the economic feasibility. Particularly the cost of nitrogen sources in biotechnological processes can make up a large fraction of total process expenses. To further develop the bioeconomy, it is of considerable interest to substitute cost-intensive by inexpensive nitrogen sources. The aim of this mini-review was to provide a comprehensive insight of utilization methods of protein-rich residues, such as fish waste, green biomass, hairs, and food waste. The methods described include (i) production of enzymes, (ii) recovery of bioactive compounds, and/or (iii) usage as nitrogen source for microorganisms in biotechnological processes. In this aspect, the utilization of protein-rich residues, which are conventionally considered as waste, allows the development of value-adding processes for the production of bioactive compounds, biomolecules, chemicals, and materials.

A techno-economic study of food waste valorization via fungal hydrolysis, microalgae cultivation and production of plasticizer, lactic acid and animal feed was simulated and evaluated by Super-Pro Designer®. A pilot-scale plant was designed with a capacity of 1 metric ton day(-1) of food waste with 20 years lifetime. Two scenarios were proposed with different products: Scenario (I) plasticizer & lactic acid, Scenario (II) plasticizer & animal feed. It was found that only Scenario I was economically feasible. The annual net profits, net present value, payback period and internal rate of return were US$ 422,699, US$ 3,028,000, 7.56 years and 18.98%, respectively. Scenario II was not economic viable due to a deficit of US$ 42,632 per year. Sensitivity analysis showed that the price of lactic acid was the largest determinant of the profitability in Scenario I, while the impact of the variables was very close in Scenario II., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydrolysate) for the formation of plasticizers and surfactants is investigated herein. Plasticizers were formed by epoxidation of double bonds of methylated unsaturated fatty acids with in situ generated peroxoformic acid. Assuming that all unsaturated fatty acids are convertible, 0.35 and 0.40 g of plasticizer can be obtained from 1 g of crude algae- or food-waste-derived lipids, respectively. Surfactants were formed by transesterification of saturated and epoxidized fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with polyglycerol. The addition of polyglycerol would result in a complete conversion of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs to fatty acid polyglycerol esters. This study successfully demonstrates the conversion of food-waste into value-added chemicals using simple and conventional chemical reactions., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The highest exponential growth rate in terms of biomass of 0.8day(-1) was obtained in a hydrolysate consisting of 17.9gL(-1) glucose, 0.1gL(-1) free amino nitrogen, 0.3gL(-1) phosphate and 4.8mgL(-1) nitrate, while the growth rate was reduced in higher concentrated hydrolysates. C. vulgaris utilized the nutrients recovered from food waste for the formation of biomass and 0.9g biomass was produced per gram glucose consumed. The microalgal biomass produced in nutrient sufficient batch cultures consisted of around 400mgg(-1) carbohydrates, 200mgg(-1) proteins and 200mgg(-1) lipids. The conversion of nutrients derived from food waste and the balanced biomass composition make C. vulgaris a promising strain for the recycling of food waste in food, feed and fuel productions., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a bio-based economy necessitates the exploitation of synergies, scientific innovations and breakthroughs, and step changes in the infrastructure of chemical industry. Sustainable production of chemicals and biopolymers should be dependent entirely on renewable carbon. White biotechnology could provide the necessary tools for the evolution of microbial bioconversion into a key unit operation in future biorefineries. Waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors (e.g., food industry, pulp and paper industry, biodiesel and bioethanol production) could be used as renewable resources for both biorefinery development and production of nutrient-complete fermentation feedstocks. This review focuses on the potential of utilizing waste and by-product streams from current industrial activities for the production of chemicals and biopolymers via microbial bioconversion. The first part of this review presents the current status and prospects on fermentative production of important platform chemicals (i.e., selected C2-C6 metabolic products and single cell oil) and biopolymers (i.e., polyhydroxyalkanoates and bacterial cellulose). In the second part, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors are presented. In the third part, the techno-economic aspects of bioconversion processes are critically reviewed. Four case studies showing the potential of case-specific waste and by-product streams for the production of succinic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates are presented. It is evident that fermentative production of chemicals and biopolymers via refining of waste and by-product streams is a highly important research area with significant prospects for industrial applications.

Potential of fungal hydrolysis in submerged fermentation by Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae as a food waste treatment process and for preparation of fermentation feedstock has been investigated. By fungal hydrolysis, 80-90% of the initial amount of waste was reduced and degraded within 36-48 h into glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN) and phosphate. Experiments revealed that 80-90% of starch can be converted into glucose and highest concentration of FAN obtained, when solid mashes of A. awamori and A. oryzae are successively added to fermentations at an interval of 24h. A maximal solid-to-liquid ratio of 43.2% (w/v) of food waste has been tested without a negative impact on releases of glucose, FAN and phosphate, and final concentrations of 143 g L(-1), 1.8 g L(-1) and 1.6 g L(-1) were obtained in the hydrolysate, respectively. Additionally, fungal hydrolysis as an alternative to conventional treatments for utilization of food waste is discussed., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, Halomonas boliviensis was cultivated on bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater in batch and fed-batch cultures for polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production. Results demonstrated that bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater could be efficiently utilized by Halomonas boliviensis while PHB contents between 10 and 30% (w/w) were obtained. Furthermore, three methods for bakery waste hydrolysis were investigated for feedstock preparation. These include: (1) use of crude enzyme extracts from Aspergillus awamori, (2) Aspergillus awamori solid mashes, and (3) commercial glucoamylase. In the first method, the resultant free amino nitrogen (FAN) concentration in hydrolysates was 150 and 250 mg L(-1) after 20 hours at enzyme-to-solid ratios of 6.9 and 13.1 U g(-1), respectively. In both cases, the final glucose concentration was around 130-150 g L(-1). In the second method, the resultant FAN and glucose concentrations were 250 mg L(-1) and 150 g L(-1), respectively. In the third method, highest glucose and lowest FAN concentrations of 170-200 g L(-1) and 100 mg L(-1), respectively, were obtained in hydrolysates after only 5 hours. The present work has generated promising information contributing to the sustainable production of bioplastic using bakery waste hydrolysate.

The feasibility of using pastry waste as resource for glucoamylase (GA) production via solid state fermentation (SSF) was studied. The crude GA extract obtained was used for glucose production from mixed food waste. Our results showed that pastry waste could be used as a sole substrate for GA production. A maximal GA activity of 76.1 ± 6.1 U/mL was obtained at Day 10. The optimal pH and reaction temperature for the crude GA extract for hydrolysis were pH 5.5 and 55 °C, respectively. Under this condition, the half-life of the GA extract was 315.0 minutes with a deactivation constant (kd) 2.20 × 10-3minutes-1. The application of the crude GA extract for mixed food waste hydrolysis and glucose production was successfully demonstrated. Approximately 53 g glucose was recovered from 100 g of mixed food waste in 1 h under the optimal digestion conditions, highlighting the potential of this approach as an alternative strategy for waste management and sustainable production of glucose applicable as carbon source in many biotechnological processes.

Glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN), and phosphate were recovered from food waste by fungal hydrolysis using Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae. Using 100g food waste (dry weight), 31.9 g glucose, 0.28 g FAN, and 0.38 g phosphate were recovered after 24h of hydrolysis. The pure hydrolysate has then been used as culture medium and nutrient source for the two heterotrophic microalgae Schizochytrium mangrovei and Chlorella pyrenoidosa, S. mangrovei and C. pyrenoidosa grew well on the complex food waste hydrolysate by utilizing the nutrients recovered. At the end of fermentation 10-20 g biomass were produced rich in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Results of this study revealed the potential of food waste hydrolysate as culture medium and nutrient source in microalgae cultivation., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We have used phosphate, nitrogen, or carbon limited batch and continuous flow cultures to study how growth and biochemical composition of the dinoflagellate Crypthecodinium cohnii CCMP 316 is affected by nutrient limitation. Specific contents of phosphorous, proteins, and starch were differently affected by nutrient limitation. The specific phosphorous content in C. cohnii varied 10-20 times depending on phosphate availability in the medium. When phosphate was available it was taken up in excess and stored to be re-utilized during phosphate limitation. The specific protein content varied twofold. At most conditions, proteins made up 12-15% of the biomass dry weight but when cells were nitrogen limited, the specific protein content was only half this value. Floridean starch was the major cell constituent of C. cohnii accounting for 40-50% of the biomass dry weight. Only during carbon limitation did the specific starch content decrease. In contrast was the specific lipid content almost unaffected by nutrient availability and lipids accounted for 12-15% of the biomass dry weight irrespectively of which nutrient that was limiting. Lipid production does therefore not depend on nutrient limitation in C. cohnii and lipids are produced even by carbon limited cells. Cultures grown under phosphate limitation resulted in formation of cells with maximal specific contents of all the three major cell constituents; starch, lipid, and protein., (Copyright © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

In this paper we describe a novel method for quantification of amino acids. First, α-hydroxy acid derivatives of amino acids were formed after reaction with dinitrogen trioxide by the van Slyke reaction. Second, the α-hydroxy acid derivatives were separated on an Aminex HPX-87H column (Bio-Rad) eluted isocratically with 5 mM H(2)SO(4) and quantified by refractive index detection. We were able to measure the reaction products of 13 of the 20 classical amino acids: glycine, l-alanine, l-valine, l-leucine, l-isoleucine, l-methionine, l-serine, l-threonine, l-asparagine, l-glutamine, l-aspartic acid, l-glutamic acid, and l-proline. We obtained linear relationships between the product peak areas and initial amino acid concentration, whereby the concentrations of these amino acids could be quantified on the basis of the quantification of their products. The method can be used to analyze amino acids in parallel with other small molecules, such as sugars or short chain fatty acids, and was used for parallel quantification of glycine, l-alanine, or l-glutamic acid, and glucose uptake in cultures of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Crypthecodinium cohnii . The method can also be used to quantify other amines, as demonstrated by detection of Tris (2-amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol).

Anaerobic biodegradation of the pesticides: gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, methoxychlor, o,p'- and p,p'-DDT in field polluted soil was tested at 12, 22 and 30 degrees C, using methanogenic granular sludge as inoculum. The contaminants were removed quite effectively at all temperatures and their removal rates increased 1.2-1.7 times with the increase in temperature. In most cases pesticide concentrations after an initial substantial decline remained almost constant until the end of experiment. These residual concentrations were also temperature dependent and they were 1.4-8.2 times higher at 12 degrees C than at 30 degrees C. DDT was degraded via DDD and accumulation of this metabolite was lower (19-64%) than the corresponding amount of removed DDT, especially at higher temperatures. Further transformation of DDD was confirmed by formation of p,p'-dichlorobenzophenone. Additional experiment demonstrated that removal was limited to readily desorbing fractions of pesticides, while their desorption-resistant fractions persisted in the soil. However, DDD metabolite was only partially removed despite its good desorbability.

Methanogenic granular sludge and wastewater fermented sludge were used as inocula for batch tests of anaerobic bioremediation of chlorinated pesticide contaminated soil. Results obtained for both types of biomass were similar: 80 to over 90% of gamma -hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethane (methoxychlor) and 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) removed in 4-6 weeks. Residual fractions of these pesticides persisted till the end of the 16-week experiment. DDT was degraded through 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDD). Accumulation of this product corresponded stoichiometrically only to 34-53% of removed DDT, supposedly due to its further transformations, finally resulting in formation of detected 4,4'-dichlorobenzophenone (DBP). Addition of 0.5 mM Tween 80 nonionic surfactant resulted in about a twofold decrease of gamma -HCH and methoxychlor residual concentrations, as well as considerably lower DDD accumulation (7-29%) and higher DBP production. However, 1.25 mM dose of this surfactant applied together with granular sludge brought DDD levels back to that observed for treatments with the sludge alone, also impairing DBP formation.