Search

Faces and bodies provide critical cues for social interaction and communication. Their structural encoding depends on configural processing, as suggested by the detrimental effect of stimulus inversion for both faces (i.e., face inversion effect - FIE) and bodies (body inversion effect - BIE). An occipito-temporal negative event-related potential (ERP) component peaking around 170 ms after stimulus onset (N170) is consistently elicited by human faces and bodies and is affected by the inversion of these stimuli. Albeit it is known that emotional expressions can boost structural encoding (resulting in larger N170 components for emotional than for neutral faces), little is known about body emotional expressions. Thus, the current study investigated the effects of different emotional expressions on structural encoding in combination with FIE and BIE. Three ERP components (P1, N170, P2) were recorded using a 128-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) when participants were presented with (upright and inverted) faces and bodies conveying four possible emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear) or no emotion (neutral). Results demonstrated that inversion and emotional expressions independently affected the Accuracy and amplitude of all ERP components (P1, N170, P2). In particular, faces showed specific effects of emotional expressions during the structural encoding stage (N170), while P2 amplitude (representing top-down conceptualisation) was modified by emotional body perception. Moreover, the task performed by participants (i.e., implicit vs. explicit processing of emotional information) differently influenced Accuracy and ERP components. These results support integrated theories of visual perception, thus speaking in favour of the functional independence of the two neurocognitive pathways (one for structural encoding and one for emotional expression analysis) involved in social stimuli processing. Results are discussed highlighting the neurocognitive and computational advan

Viaggiare in ambienti sconosciuti è un'abilità essenziale. Durante la navigazione, siamo esposti a una grande quantità di informazioni, ma alcuni stimoli possono essere più rilevanti di altri. Mentre esiste una comprensione consolidata dei meccanismi alla base delle capacità di orientamento e un ampio consenso sull'effetto dell'elaborazione delle emozioni facciali sulla maggior parte dei processi cognitivi, poco si sa sull'interazione tra l'elaborazione delle emozioni altrui e le abilità di navigazione spaziale. La presente ricerca consiste in cinque esperimenti con circa 1.000 partecipanti per indagare come l'elaborazione delle emozioni negative altrui influenzi il wayfinding, i domini di navigazione spaziale e le abilità visuospaziali. In tutti gli esperimenti sono state prese in considerazione le differenze di genere. Nell'Esperimento 1, i partecipanti hanno navigato due volte in tre ambienti virtuali. La prima volta dovevano trovare un oggetto e la seconda dovevano ricordare il percorso per raggiungerlo. Tra le due fasi, i partecipanti hanno eseguito un compito di categorizzazione di genere di volti con espressioni neutre, paurose o arrabbiate. I risultati hanno mostrato che l'esposizione a facce paurose, ma non a facce arrabbiate o neutre, comprometteva le prestazioni di navigazione dei maschi, mentre le femmine non ne erano influenzate. Negli esperimenti 2 e 3 abbiamo esteso questa ricerca a stimoli emotivi diversi (cioè corpi o contesti) e non abbiamo riscontrato un impatto significativo sulla navigazione. Nell'Esperimento 4 abbiamo esplorato ulteriormente il modo in cui le emozioni negative del volto influenzano i domini di navigazione con sei compiti, dimostrando che l'elaborazione di volti spaventati (e in misura minore di volti arrabbiati) comprometteva le prestazioni dei maschi e migliorava quelle delle femmine, ma solo nei compiti che coinvolgevano le strategie di localizzazione e la conoscenza del percorso. L'esperimento 5 ha esteso la ricerca, Travelling unfamiliar environments is an essential ability. When navigating, we are exposed to a vast amount of information, but some cues might be more relevant than others. While there is a well-established understanding of mechanisms underlying orientational skills and a wide consensus on the effect of facial emotional processing on most cognitive processes, little is known about the interplay between processing others’ emotions and spatial navigation abilities. The present research consists of five experiments with approximately 1,000 participants to investigate how processing other’s negative emotions influences wayfinding, spatial navigation domains, and visuospatial skills. Gender differences were considered in all experiments. In Experiment 1, participants navigated three virtual environments twice. The first time was to find an object, and the second time was to recall the path to reach it. Between the two phases, participants performed a gender categorisation task of faces showing neutral, fearful, or angry expressions. Results showed that exposure to fearful faces, but not angry or neutral faces, impaired males' navigation performance, whereas females were unaffected. In Experiments 2 and 3 we extended this research to different emotional stimuli (i.e. bodies or contexts) and found no significant impact on wayfinding. In Experiment 4, we further explored how facial negative emotions affect navigation domains with six tasks, showing that processing fearful faces (and to a lesser extent angry faces) impaired males' and enhanced females' performance, but only in tasks involving location strategies and path survey knowledge. Experiment 5 extended the research to visuospatial skills, which are essential for navigation and face processing. The study evaluated whether processing negative emotions during a visuospatial task (Delayed Non-Match to Sample Task, DNMS) affects performance on a subsequent visuospatial task (Backward Corsi Block Tapping Task, CBT). The

Finding one’s way in unfamiliar environments is an essential ability. When navigating, we are overwhelmed with an enormous amount of information, and since we are relatively selective, some might be more relevant than others. Despite the well-established mechanisms underlying orientational skills, and the notable effects of facial emotions on most cognitive processes, little is known about emotions’ effects on spatial navigation. Hereby, this study aimed to explore how exposure to others’ negative emotional facial expressions affects wayfinding performances. Moreover, gender differences that characterise both processes were considered. Participants (N=54, 30 females) entered twice three realistic virtual environments created employing Virtual Reality: first, to encode a route to find an object (T1) and then to recall the learned path to reach the same object again (T2). In between the two phases, participants were asked to undergo a gender categorisation task and were exposed to sixty faces showing either neutral, fearful, or angry expressions. Results showed a significant interaction between emotions, time, and gender. In particular, the exposition to fearful faces, not angry ones, decreased males’ navigational performances, while females were unaffected by either emotional condition. Possible explanations for such gender and emotional dissimilarities are discussed. Keywords: Navigation, Faces, Emotions, Fear, Virtual Reality

I nostri tre studi ci forniscono un progresso nella conoscenza dei diversi meccanismi in gioco nella percezione della direzione dello sguardo, nel comportamento di seguire lo sguardo e nell'attenzione congiunta, sia a livello comportamentale che neurofisiologico. In particolare, la presente tesi porta prove dell'interazione e del corso temporale dei meccanismi cognitivi e neurali (processi bottom-up e top-down) che vengono reclutati quando si vede lo sguardo di altre persone. Questo equilibrio è possibilmente mantenuto al fine di prendere giustamente in considerazione o ignorare le informazioni provenienti dagli occhi di un'altra persona a seconda dei nostri obiettivi, dell'intenzione e del comportamento corrente., our three studies provide us with an advance in knowledge on the different mechanisms at play in the perception of gaze direction, gaze following behavior and joint attention, both at the behavioral and neurophysiological level. Specifically, the present thesis brings evidence of the interplay and time course of the cognitive and neural mechanisms (bottom-up and top-down processes) that are recruited when seeing other people’s gaze. This balance is possibly maintained in order to justifiably take into account or disregard information coming from another person’s eyes depending upon our goals, intention and current behavior.

In this study, we investigated whether the difficulties in body motion (BM) perception may led to deficit in emotion recognition in Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To this aim, individuals with high-functioning ASD were asked to recognise fearful, happy, and neutral BM depicted as static images or dynamic point-light and full-light displays. Results showed slower response times in participants with ASD only in recognising dynamic stimuli, but no group differences in accuracy. This suggests that i) a deficit in action chaining mechanism in ASD may prevent the recognition of dynamic BM automatically and rapidly, ii) individuals with ASD and high cognitive resources can develop alternative—but equally successful—strategies to recognise emotional body expressions. Implications for treatment are discussed

Boxing athletes code the opponents’ intention to act in advance to plan and perform the most appropriate counterattack responses; in contrast, non-athletes respond with a defence action (Ottoboni, Russo, Tessari, 2015). We investigated whether such difference is limited at elaborating the most appropriate motor response or relies on different visual and attentional strategies during the early visual analysis of the opponent. We recorded saccades as indexes of visual attentional orienting during an implicit paradigm (i.e., a Simon-like task): nine experienced boxers and nine controls observed photographs of boxing attacks (jab and cross) or a neutral position (guard) and judged the colour of body parts either salient or not for elaborating the attack action (gloves vs. shorts, respectively) by shifting their gaze towards one of two lateral response boxes. Release reaction times (i.e., time between the start of the first saccade away from the fixation rectangle toward the response box) were faster toward the arm that seemed about to attack for the jab stance (the most dynamic one as implying motion) when judging the glove colour in both athletes and controls. No effect emerged when focusing on the shorts that provide irrelevant information for elaborating a defence or attack action. Therefore, athletes and controls seem to use the same visual strategies (saccadic movements) when analysing the opponent’s posture before acting. However, if expertise brings better motor response processing as previously found, the difference between athletes and non-athletes must lay in a later cognitive stage (other than the visual one) devoted to plane the most effective motor response.

Boxing athletes code the opponents’ intention to act in advance to plan and perform the most appropriate counterattack responses; in contrast, non-athletes respond with a defence action (Ottoboni, Russo, Tessari, 2015). We investigated whether such difference is limited at elaborating the most appropriate motor response or relies on different visual and attentional strategies during the early visual analysis of the opponent. We recorded saccades as indexes of visual attentional orienting during an implicit paradigm (i.e., a Simon-like task): nine experienced boxers and nine controls observed photographs of boxing attacks (jab and cross) or a neutral position (guard) and judged the colour of body parts either salient or not for elaborating the attack action (gloves vs. shorts, respectively) by shifting their gaze towards one of two lateral response boxes. Release reaction times (i.e., time between the start of the first saccade away from the fixation rectangle toward the response box) were faster toward the arm that seemed about to attack for the jab stance (the most dynamic one as implying motion) when judging the glove colour in both athletes and controls. No effect emerged when focusing on the shorts that provide irrelevant information for elaborating a defence or attack action. Therefore, athletes and controls seem to use the same visual strategies (saccadic movements) when analysing the opponent’s posture before acting. However, if expertise brings better motor response processing as previously found, the difference between athletes and non-athletes must lay in a later cognitive stage (other than the visual one) devoted to plane the most effective motor response.

Secondo il filosofo greco Aristotele "L'uomo è per natura un animale sociale". Dopo 2350 anni, oggi sappiamo che questa affermazione è solo parzialmente vera. Sebbene le evidenze sperimentali abbiano messo in luce una preferenza per gli stimoli e le interazioni sociali negli esseri umani, questa conclusione non sembra applicabile a tutti gli individui e contesti. L'elaborazione degli stimoli sociali può infatti essere influenzata da caratteristiche degli stimoli sociali e non sociali, presentati in competizione, nonché da caratteristiche inter-individuali. Tra quest'ultime, il Disturbo dello Spettro Autistico è sicuramente un esempio prototipico di atipicità nei comportamenti sociali e nella cognizione sociale. Il presente lavoro di tesi era rivolta a: i. indagare se gli stimoli sociali esercitano una priorità di elaborazione negli individui a sviluppo tipico (TD), anche quando presentati in competizione con altri stimoli non sociali fortemente rilevanti (denaro); ii. Indagare se e come gli individui con ASD rispondono a stimoli sociali vs non sociali rispetto agli individui TD, prendendo in esame un duplice livello di elaborazione, cognitivo e fisiologico; iii. Indagare se le differenze tra individui TD e ASD nell'elaborazione degli stimoli sociali e non sociali possano considerarsi l'espressione di un fenotipo familiare allargato; iv. Indagare la possibilità di modificare la salienza degli stimoli sociali negli individui con ASD attraverso una metodologia di apprendimento implicito ABMT (Attention Bias Modification Treatment). La presente tesi presenta tre implicazioni: teorica, metodologica e clinica. Per quanto riguarda le implicazioni teoriche, il presente lavoro supporta solo parzialmente l'affermazione di Aristotele. I risultati infatti hanno evidenziato chiaramente che, sebbene gli stimoli sociali abbiano solitamente un accesso prioritario agli step di elaborazione, la loro valenza può essere influenzata da una varietà di variabili come le differen, According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle “Man is by nature a social animal”. After 2350 years, we know that this statement is partially true. Although experimental evidence has reported a preference for social stimuli and social interactions in human beings, this conclusion does not apply to every individuals and contexts. Social stimuli processing can indeed be affected by stimuli and competitive non-social stimuli features as well as by inter-individual characteristics. Among the clinical conditions characterized by atypicality in social behaviours and social cognition (e.g., schizophrenia, personality disorders etc.), Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is the most prototypical example. The present dissertation was aimed at: i. investigating whether social stimuli are prioritized by typically developed individuals (TD) even when they attentively compete with other relevant non-social stimuli (money); ii. Investigating whether and how individuals with ASD differently respond to social vs non-social stimuli compared to TD individuals, by considering both a cognitive and a physiological level of processing; iii. Investigating whether the differences between TD and ASD individuals in social vs nonsocial stimuli processing are the expression of a familiar phenotype; iv. Investigating whether it is possible to modify the salience of social stimuli in ASD individuals through an Attention Bias Modification Treatment (ABMT) methodology. The present dissertation is expected to provide three main implications: theoretical, methodological and clinical. As concerns the theoretical implications, the present work only partially supports Aristotle statement mentioned in the introduction. Indeed, the reported findings have clearly highlighted that, although social stimuli are usually prioritized, their valence may be affected by a variety of variables such as individual differences (e.g., autistic traits) or characteristics of the non-social stimuli presented in competition with t

Boxing athletes code the opponents' intention to act in advance to plan and perform the most appropriate counterattack responses; in contrast, non-athletes respond with a defence action (Ottoboni, Russo, Tessari, 2015). We investigated whether such difference is limited at elaborating the most appropriate motor response or relies on different visual and attentional strategies during the early visual analysis of the opponent. We recorded saccades as indexes of visual attentional orienting during an implicit paradigm (i.e., a Simon-like task): nine experienced boxers and nine controls observed photographs of boxing attacks (jab and cross) or a neutral position (guard) and judged the colour of body parts either salient or not for elaborating the attack action (gloves vs. shorts, respectively) by shifting their gaze towards one of two lateral response boxes. Release reaction times (i.e., time between the start of the first saccade away from the fixation rectangle toward the response box) were faster toward the arm that seemed about to attack for the jab stance (the most dynamic one as implying motion) when judging the glove colour in both athletes and controls. No effect emerged when focusing on the shorts that provide irrelevant information for elaborating a defence or attack action. Therefore, athletes and controls seem to use the same visual strategies (saccadic movements) when analysing the opponent's posture before acting. However, if expertise brings better motor response processing as previously found, the difference between athletes and non-athletes must lay in a later cognitive stage (other than the visual one) devoted to plane the most effective motor response.

According to the Polyvagal theory, the vagus nerve is the key phylogenetic substrate that supports efficient emotion recognition for promoting safety and survival. Previous studies showed that the vagus nerve affects people’s ability to recognize emotions based on eye regions and whole facial images, but not static bodies. The purpose of this study was to verify whether the previously suggested causal link between vagal activity and emotion recognition can be generalized to situations in which emotions must be inferred from images of whole moving bodies. We employed transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS), a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that stimulates the vagus nerve by a mild electrical stimulation to the auricular branch of the vagus, located in the anterior protuberance of the outer ear. In two sessions, participants received active or sham tVNS before and while performing three emotion recognition tasks, aimed at indexing their ability to recognize emotions from static or moving bodily expressions by actors. Active tVNS, compared to sham stimulation, enhanced the recognition of anger but reduced the ability to recognize sadness, regardless of the type of stimulus (static vs. moving). Convergent with the idea of hierarchical involvement of the vagus in establishing safety, as put forward by the Polyvagal theory, we argue that our findings may be explained by vagus-evoked differential adjustment strategies to emotional expressions. Taken together, our findings fit with an evolutionary perspective on the vagus nerve and its involvement in emotion recognition for the benefit of survival.

The gaze cueing effect involves the rapid orientation of attention to follow the gaze direction of another person. Previous studies reported reciprocal influences between social variables and the gaze cueing effect, with modulation of gaze cueing by social features of face stimuli and modulation of the observer’s social judgements from the validity of the gaze cues themselves. However, it remains unclear which social dimensions can affect—and be affected by—gaze cues. We used computer-averaged prototype face-like images with high and low levels of perceived trustworthiness and dominance to investigate the impact of these two fundamental social impression dimensions on the gaze cueing effect. Moreover, by varying the proportions of valid and invalid gaze cues across three experiments, we assessed whether gaze cueing influences observers’ impressions of dominance and trustworthiness through incidental learning. Bayesian statistical analyses provided clear evidence that the gaze cueing effect was not modulated by facial social trait impressions (Experiments 1–3). However, there was uncertain evidence of incidental learning of social evaluations following the gaze cueing task. A decrease in perceived trustworthiness for non-cooperative low dominance faces (Experiment 2) and an increase in dominance ratings for faces whose gaze behaviour contradicted expectations (Experiment 3) appeared, but further research is needed to clarify these effects. Thus, this study confirms that attentional shifts triggered by gaze direction involve a robust and relatively automatic process, which could nonetheless influence social impressions depending on perceived traits and the gaze behaviour of faces providing the cues.

The recognition of emotional body movement (BM) is impaired in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder ASD, yet it is not clear whether the difficulty is related to the encoding of body motion, emotions, or both. Besides, BM recognition has been traditionally studied using point-light displays stimuli (PLDs) and is still underexplored in individuals with ASD and intellectual disability (ID). In the present study, we investigated the recognition of happy, fearful, and neutral BM in children with ASD with and without ID. In a non-verbal recognition task, participants were asked to recognize pure-body-motion and visible-body-form stimuli (by means of point-light displays-PLDs and full-light displays-FLDs, respectively). We found that the children with ASD were less accurate than TD children in recognizing both the emotional and neutral BM, either when presented as FLDs or PLDs. These results suggest that the difficulty in understanding the observed BM may rely on atypical processing of BM information rather than emotion. Moreover, we found that the accuracy improved with age and IQ only in children with ASD without ID, suggesting that high level of cognitive resources can mediate the acquisition of compensatory mechanisms which develop with age.

Face and body perception is mediated by configural mechanisms, which allow the perception of these stimuli as a whole, rather than the sum of individual parts. Indirect measures of configural processing in visual cognition are the face and body inversion effects (FIE and BIE), which refer to the drop in performance when these stimuli are perceived upside-down. Albeit FIE and BIE have been well characterized at the behavioral level, much still needs to be understood in terms of the neurophysiological correlates of these effects. Thus, in the current study, the brain's electrical activity has been recorded by a 128 channel electroencephalogram (EEG) in 24 healthy participants while perceiving (upright and inverted) faces, bodies and houses. EEG data were analyzed in both the time domain (i.e., event-related potentials-ERPs) and the frequency domain [i.e., induced theta (5-7 Hz) and gamma (28-45 Hz) oscillations]. ERPs amplitude results showed increased N170 amplitude for inverted faces and bodies (compared to the same stimuli presented in canonical position) but not for houses. ERPs latency results showed delayed N170 components for inverted (vs. upright) faces, houses, but not bodies. Spectral analysis of induced oscillations indicated physiological FIE and BIE; that is decreased gamma-band synchronization over right occipito-temporal electrodes for inverted (vs. upright) faces, and increased bilateral frontoparietal theta-band synchronization for inverted (vs. upright) faces. Furthermore, increased left occipito-temporal and right frontal theta-band synchronization for upright (vs. inverted) bodies was found. Our findings, thus, demonstrate clear differences in the neurophysiological correlates of face and body perception. The neurophysiological FIE suggests disruption of feature binding processes (decrease in occipital gamma oscillations for inverted faces), together with enhanced feature-based attention (increase in frontoparietal theta oscillations for inverted f

The recognition of emotional body movement (BM) is impaired in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder ASD, yet it is not clear whether the difficulty is related to the encoding of body motion, emotions, or both. Besides, BM recognition has been traditionally studied using point-light displays stimuli (PLDs) and is still underexplored in individuals with ASD and intellectual disability (ID). In the present study, we investigated the recognition of happy, fearful, and neutral BM in children with ASD with and without ID. In a non-verbal recognition task, participants were asked to recognize pure-body-motion and visible-body-form stimuli (by means of point-light displays-PLDs and full-light displays-FLDs, respectively). We found that the children with ASD were less accurate than TD children in recognizing both the emotional and neutral BM, either when presented as FLDs or PLDs. These results suggest that the difficulty in understanding the observed BM may rely on atypical processing of BM information rather than emotion. Moreover, we found that the accuracy improved with age and IQ only in children with ASD without ID, suggesting that high level of cognitive resources can mediate the acquisition of compensatory mechanisms which develop with age.

Face and body perception is mediated by configural mechanisms, which allow the perception of these stimuli as a whole, rather than the sum of individual parts. Indirect measures of configural processing in visual cognition are the face and body inversion effects (FIE and BIE), which refer to the drop in performance when these stimuli are perceived upside-down. Albeit FIE and BIE have been well characterized at the behavioral level, much still needs to be understood in terms of the neurophysiological correlates of these effects. Thus, in the current study, the brain's electrical activity has been recorded by a 128 channel electroencephalogram (EEG) in 24 healthy participants while perceiving (upright and inverted) faces, bodies and houses. EEG data were analyzed in both the time domain (i.e., event-related potentials-ERPs) and the frequency domain [i.e., induced theta (5-7 Hz) and gamma (28-45 Hz) oscillations]. ERPs amplitude results showed increased N170 amplitude for inverted faces and bodies (compared to the same stimuli presented in canonical position) but not for houses. ERPs latency results showed delayed N170 components for inverted (vs. upright) faces, houses, but not bodies. Spectral analysis of induced oscillations indicated physiological FIE and BIE; that is decreased gamma-band synchronization over right occipito-temporal electrodes for inverted (vs. upright) faces, and increased bilateral frontoparietal theta-band synchronization for inverted (vs. upright) faces. Furthermore, increased left occipito-temporal and right frontal theta-band synchronization for upright (vs. inverted) bodies was found. Our findings, thus, demonstrate clear differences in the neurophysiological correlates of face and body perception. The neurophysiological FIE suggests disruption of feature binding processes (decrease in occipital gamma oscillations for inverted faces), together with enhanced feature-based attention (increase in frontoparietal theta oscillations for inverted f

The role of distinct cortical regions in guiding social orienting needs further investigation. Our aim was to explore the contribution of the frontal eye field (FEF) in early orienting of attention towards stimuli with social value. We used a TMS-EEG approach to investigate event related potentials (ERPs; no-TMS block) and TMS evoked potentials (TEPs; TMS block) during the cueing phase of a modified version of the dot-probe task, comparing competing (face vs. house) and not competing (house vs. house) conditions. Our results revealed an increased amplitude of ERP components in the competing condition, showing greater posterior N170 and fronto-central vertex positive potential (VPP) and an enhanced frontal negative component at 250–270 ms from cue onset. TMS pulses over the FEF induced similar N170 and VPP amplified components. In addition, in the ERPs, a reduced positivity at 400 ms was shown when the face appeared on the left side vs. the right side of space. In contrast, in the TMS blocks, we found lateralized effects on N170 depending on the side of face presentation. The enhanced cortical excitability induced by TMS over the right FEF significantly correlated with the performance on the behavioral task, suggesting a link between the FEF activity during the cueing phase of the dot-probe task and the subsequent behavioral response times to the targets.

The role of distinct cortical regions in guiding social orienting needs further investigation. Our aim was to explore the contribution of the frontal eye field (FEF) in early orienting of attention towards stimuli with social value. We used a TMS-EEG approach to investigate event related potentials (ERPs; no-TMS block) and TMS evoked potentials (TEPs; TMS block) during the cueing phase of a modified version of the dot-probe task, comparing competing (face vs. house) and not competing (house vs. house) conditions. Our results revealed an increased amplitude of ERP components in the competing condition, showing greater posterior N170 and fronto-central vertex positive potential (VPP) and an enhanced frontal negative component at 250–270 ms from cue onset. TMS pulses over the FEF induced similar N170 and VPP amplified components. In addition, in the ERPs, a reduced positivity at 400 ms was shown when the face appeared on the left side vs. the right side of space. In contrast, in the TMS blocks, we found lateralized effects on N170 depending on the side of face presentation. The enhanced cortical excitability induced by TMS over the right FEF significantly correlated with the performance on the behavioral task, suggesting a link between the FEF activity during the cueing phase of the dot-probe task and the subsequent behavioral response times to the targets.

Social exclusion is a painful experience that is felt as a threat to the human need to belong and can lead to increased aggressive and anti-social behaviours, and results in emotional and cognitive numbness. Excluded individuals also seem to show an automatic tuning to positivity: they tend to increase their selective attention towards social acceptance signals. Despite these effects known in the literature, the consequences of social exclusion on social information processing still need to be explored in depth. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of social exclusion on processing two features that are strictly bound in the appraisal of the meaning of facial expressions: gaze direction and emotional expression. In two experiments (N = 60, N = 45), participants were asked to identify gaze direction or emotional expressions from facial stimuli, in which both these features were manipulated. They performed these tasks in a four-block crossed design after being socially included or excluded using the Cyberball game. Participants' empathy and self-reported emotions were recorded using the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and PANAS questionnaires. The Need Threat Scale and three additional questions were also used as manipulation checks in the second experiment. In both experiments, excluded participants showed to be less accurate than included participants in gaze direction discrimination. Modulatory effects of direct gaze (Experiment 1) and sad expression (Experiment 2) on the effects of social exclusion were found on response times (RTs) in the emotion recognition task. Specific differences in the reaction to social exclusion between males and females were also found in Experiment 2: excluded male participants tended to be less accurate and faster than included male participants, while excluded females showed a more accurate and slower performance than included female participants. No influence of social exclusion on PANAS or EQ scores was found. Results are disc

I volti e i corpi veicolano gli indizi non-verbali più importanti per le interazioni sociali. Essi forniscono numerosi dettagli essenziali per il riconoscimento dell’identità, genere, intenzioni e stato emotivo. Tutti i volti e i corpi sono simmetrici e condividono la medesima struttura tridimensionale, ma gli esseri umani riescono ad identificare facilmente centinaia di persone diverse, facendo affidamento solo sulle informazioni fornite da volto e corpo. L’elaborazione del volto e del corpo è stata ampiamente studiata e diversi modelli cogntivi e neuroanatomici sono stati ideati per spiegare questi processi. Nonostante numerose differenze sostanziali, tutti questi modelli hanno riconosciuto diversi stadi di elaborazione, dalla codifica dello stimolo rapida e più grezza (corteccia visiva occipitale) fino a processi di livello più alto, finalizzati al riconoscimento di aspetti invarianti (es., identità) e mutevoli (es., sguardo, espressioni emotive) (sottesi da un vasto network fronto-temporo-parietale). È stato dimostrato che questi processi coinvolgono l’elaborazione configurale degli stimoli. Inoltre, le espressioni emotive sembrano influenzare la codifica di questi stimoli. Le espressioni emotive vengono elaborate ad uno stadio molto precoce e pare che coinvolgano l’attivazione di una via sottocorticale. Gli studi presentati in questa tesi hanno l’obiettivo di indagare la percezione visiva di volti e corpi, e come essa può essere modulata o manipolata, in alcuni studi anche attraverso l’elettroencefalografia (EEG). Mentre il primo Capitolo presenta il quadro teorico in cui è stato concepito questo lavoro di tesi, il secondo Capitolo presenta il primo studio (composto da due esperimenti), che ha l’obiettivo di indagare come può essere modulata la percezione di indizi sociali attraverso l’esclusione sociale. La ricerca era concentrata sulla percezione di due categorie di indizi facciali diversi, ma in interazione: le espressioni emotive e la direzione de, Human face and body convey the most important non-verbal cues for social interactions. Face and body provide numerous cues essential for recognition of other people’s identity, gender, age, intentions and emotional state. All faces and bodies are symmetrical and share a common 3D structure, but humans are able to easily identify hundreds of different people, just relying on facial and bodily information. Face and body processing have been widely studied and several cognitive and neuroanatomical models of these processes were hypothesized. Despite many critical differences, all these models recognized different stages of processing from early coarse stimulus encoding (occipital visual cortices) to higher-level processes aimed to identify invariant (e.g., identity) and changeable features (e.g., gaze, emotional expressions) (broad fronto-temporo-parietal network). It was demonstrated that these processes involve configural processing. Moreover, emotional expressions seem to influence the encoding of these stimuli. Processing of emotional expressions occurs at very early latencies and seems to involve the activation of a subcortical pathway. The studies presented in this thesis are aimed to investigate the visual perception of faces and bodies, and how it can be modulated or manipulated. EEG was used in some of the studies presented in this thesis to investigate the psychophysiological processes involved in face and body perception. While the first Chapter is aimed to present the theoretical background of the studies reported in the thesis, the second Chapter presents the first study (composed of two experiments), aimed to investigate how the perception of social cues can be modulated by social exclusion. The process investigated is the perception of two different, but interacting, facial cues: emotional expression and gaze direction. In this study, we found that the identification of gaze direction was specifically impaired by social exclusion, while no impairment was

Social exclusion is a painful experience that is felt as a threat to the human need to belong and can lead to increased aggressive and anti-social behaviours, and results in emotional and cognitive numbness. Excluded individuals also seem to show an automatic tuning to positivity: they tend to increase their selective attention towards social acceptance signals. Despite these effects known in the literature, the consequences of social exclusion on social information processing still need to be explored in depth. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of social exclusion on processing two features that are strictly bound in the appraisal of the meaning of facial expressions: gaze direction and emotional expression. In two experiments (N = 60, N = 45), participants were asked to identify gaze direction or emotional expressions from facial stimuli, in which both these features were manipulated. They performed these tasks in a four-block crossed design after being socially included or excluded using the Cyberball game. Participants' empathy and self-reported emotions were recorded using the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and PANAS questionnaires. The Need Threat Scale and three additional questions were also used as manipulation checks in the second experiment. In both experiments, excluded participants showed to be less accurate than included participants in gaze direction discrimination. Modulatory effects of direct gaze (Experiment 1) and sad expression (Experiment 2) on the effects of social exclusion were found on response times (RTs) in the emotion recognition task. Specific differences in the reaction to social exclusion between males and females were also found in Experiment 2: excluded male participants tended to be less accurate and faster than included male participants, while excluded females showed a more accurate and slower performance than included female participants. No influence of social exclusion on PANAS or EQ scores was found. Results are disc

In two experiments we investigated whether stimuli that elicit automatic orienting of attention (i.e., arrow or averted gaze) could drive apparent motion perception in one of two possible directions, modulating the effect of a low-level property (the orientation of elements along the motion direction). To this end, the competing motion paradigm was used, in which at time 1, a stimulus appears in the center of the display, and at time 2, two other stimuli appear in different spatial locations. Three kinds of stimuli with eight possible orientations were used in separate blocks; (1) a line; (2) an arrow; and, (3) an averted gaze. First, since the three stimuli present in the display at time 2 should be perceived to be located at the same distance (i.e., equidistant), the threshold for perceived equidistance was calculated for each participant and then used as the customized inter-stimulus distance. Participants were asked to press the button corresponding to the direction of the perceived motion. Results show a preference for collinear motion (motions between elements oriented along the motion direction), with a higher percentage of responses for gaze and arrow stimuli. In Experiment 1, a difference between gaze-and arrow-stimuli was observed. Apparent motion was seen towards the collinear position more often for gaze than for arrow when the stimulus was pointing to the vertical directions, while the opposite was true when the stimulus was pointing to the horizontal directions. In Experiment 2, where the lightness contrast between the gaze and the background was reduced, no difference between gaze-and arrow-stimuli emerged. We interpret our results as due to the social and biological value of gaze, which solved a possible ambiguity between gaze direction and the directions conveyed by the figural properties of the contrasted background in Experiment 1. These findings are consistent with the idea that stimuli known to automatically orient visual attention modulate moti

The activation of the mirror-neuron circuit during the observation of motor acts is thought to be the basis of human capacity to read the intentions behind the behavior of others. Growing empirical evidence shows a different activation of the mirror-neuron resonance mechanism depending on how much the observer and the observed agent share their motor repertoires. Here, the possible modulatory effect of physical similarity between the observer and the agent was investigated in three studies. We used a visuo-motor priming task in which participants were asked to categorize manipulable and non-manipulable objects into natural or man-made kinds after having watched precision and power reach-to-grasp movements. Physical similarity was manipulated by presenting reach-to-grasp movements performed by the hands of actors of three different age ranges that are adults of the same age as the participants, children, and elderly. Faster responses were observed in trials where power grip movements were performed by the adults and precision grip movements were performed by the elderly (Main Study). This finding is not in keeping with the idea that physical similarity shapes the mirrorneuron resonance. Instead, it suggests an effect of the kinematic organization of the reach-to-grasp movements, which systematically changed with the actor age as revealed by a kinematic analysis. The differential effect played by adult and elderly actor primes was lost when static grasping hands (Control Study 1) and reach-to-grasp movements with uniform kinematic profiles (Control Study 2) were used. Therefore, we found preliminary evidence that mirror-neuron resonance is not shaped by physical similarity but by the kinematics of the observed action. This finding is novel as it suggests that human ability to read the intentions behind the behavior of others may benefit from a mere visual processing of spatiotemporal patterns

In two experiments we investigated whether stimuli that elicit automatic orienting of attention (i.e., arrow or averted gaze) could drive apparent motion perception in one of two possible directions, modulating the effect of a low-level property (the orientation of elements along the motion direction). To this end, the competing motion paradigm was used, in which at time 1, a stimulus appears in the center of the display, and at time 2, two other stimuli appear in different spatial locations. Three kinds of stimuli with eight possible orientations were used in separate blocks; (1) a line; (2) an arrow; and, (3) an averted gaze. First, since the three stimuli present in the display at time 2 should be perceived to be located at the same distance (i.e., equidistant), the threshold for perceived equidistance was calculated for each participant and then used as the customized inter-stimulus distance. Participants were asked to press the button corresponding to the direction of the perceived motion. Results show a preference for collinear motion (motions between elements oriented along the motion direction), with a higher percentage of responses for gaze and arrow stimuli. In Experiment 1, a difference between gaze-and arrow-stimuli was observed. Apparent motion was seen towards the collinear position more often for gaze than for arrow when the stimulus was pointing to the vertical directions, while the opposite was true when the stimulus was pointing to the horizontal directions. In Experiment 2, where the lightness contrast between the gaze and the background was reduced, no difference between gaze-and arrow-stimuli emerged. We interpret our results as due to the social and biological value of gaze, which solved a possible ambiguity between gaze direction and the directions conveyed by the figural properties of the contrasted background in Experiment 1. These findings are consistent with the idea that stimuli known to automatically orient visual attention modulate moti

RIASSUNTO. Scopo. È noto come l'anoressia nervosa (AN) e il disturbo dello spetto autistico (ASD) condividano alcuni tratti, come la rigidità mentale e l'attenzione per i dettagli, che potrebbero essere diffusi a livello familiare. Questo studio ha lo scopo di confrontare la distribuzione di tratti autistici in genitori con figlie affette da disturbo alimentare ED (anoressia - AN o bulimia nervosa - BN) con genitori appartenenti a un gruppo di controllo. Metodi. Sono stati coinvolti 40 genitori con figlie affette da disturbo alimentare (60% con anoressia, 40% con bulimia nervosa) e 33 genitori di controllo. Tutti i genitori hanno compilato questionari specifici riguardanti il quoziente di spettro autistico (AQ) e le stime cognitive (CET). Inoltre, sono stati somministrati EAT-26 e SCL-90-R al fine di escludere la presenza di disturbi psichiatrici o alimentari nel gruppo sperimentale. Risultati. Le analisi su AQ mostrano una differenza tra i due gruppi per un tratto autistico specifico, evidenziando una riduzione significativa dell'attenzione per i dettagli nel gruppo sperimentale (ED), in particolare nei genitori di figlie affette da AN. Discussione. Questi dati suggeriscono una preferenza per un'elaborazione globale delle informazioni nei genitori AN in contrasto a quanto trovato in pazienti con AN. La presenza di aspetti depressivi, ansiosi e di disturbi alimentari è stata esclusa nei genitori nel gruppo sperimentale tramite SCL-90-R e EAT-26. Infine, la capacità di prendere decisioni, misurata dal CET, è stata esclusa dalle nostre analisi. Conclusione. Nei genitori con figlie affette da AN emerge una peculiare preferenza per un'elaborazione cognitiva globale, suggerendo il ruolo dell'attenzione per i dettagli come nuovo fattore da considerare nelle valutazione cliniche di pazienti con AN e nei loro familiari. Considerando i limiti dello studio, ulteriori approfondimenti in merito sono necessari, Aim. Anorexia nervosa (AN) and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) may share traits such as mental rigidity and attention to detail, some of which might be familial. We aimed to investigate the distribution of autistic traits among parents of daughters suffering from eating disorders (anorexia or bulimia nervosa), comparing them with control parents. Methods.As a whole, 40 parents of women with eating disorders (60% AN, 40% BN) and 33 control parents were recruited and accepted an examination through the administration of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ). The effects of eating disorders and other psychiatric traits were excluded by using EAT-26 and SCL-90-R respectively, while decision making skills were ruled out by using the cognitive estimation task (CET). Results. AQ scores revealed a between-groups difference for a specific trait, showing a reduction in attention to detail among ED family members, especially AN parents. Discussion.These findings suggest a preference for global processing in AN parents in contrast to what found in AN patients. Our findings support the role of a candidate trait in AN parents, supporting the need of further studies on the role of attention to detail as a family marker. Conclusion. This study identified a global processing preference in AN parents, suggesting a role of attention to detail as an ideal marker to be included in a wider clinical assessment for AN patients and their families. Considering some study limitations, further research is needed

Motor resonance (MR) involves the activation of matching motor representations while observing others' actions. Recent research has shown that such a phenomenon is likely to be influenced by higher order variables such as social factors (e.g., ethnic group membership). The present study investigates whether and how the perception of a social threat elicited by an outgroup member and by contextual cues can modulate motor responses while an individual observes others' movements. In an experimental study based on an action observation paradigm, we asked participants to provide answers through computer mouse movements (MouseTracker). We manipulated the agents' group membership (ingroup vs. outgroup) and the social valence of the objects present in a context (neutral vs. threatening) to elicit social menace through contextual cues. Response times and computer mouse trajectories were recorded. The results show a higher level of MR (i.e., participants started to respond earlier and were faster at responding) when observing an action performed by the ingroup members rather than by the outgroup members only when threatening objects are present in a given context. Participants seem to resonate better with their ingroup; conversely, the outgroup member movements tend to delay motor responses. Therefore, we extend prior research going beyond the general ingroup bias effect on MR and showing that the interaction between membership and contextual cues is likely to elicit threat-related stereotypes. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.

In three experiments, we tested whether the amount of attentional resources needed to process a face displaying neutral/angry/fearful facial expressions with direct or averted gaze depends on task instructions, and face presentation. To this end, we used a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation paradigm in which participants in Experiment 1 were first explicitly asked to discriminate whether the expression of a target face (T1) with direct or averted gaze was angry or neutral, and then to judge the orientation of a landscape (T2). Experiment 2 was identical to Experiment 1 except that participants had to discriminate the gender of the face of T1 and fearful faces were also presented randomly inter-mixed within each block of trials. Experiment 3 differed from Experiment 2 only because angry and fearful faces were never presented within the same block. The findings indicated that the presence of the attentional blink (AB) for face stimuli depends on specific combinations of gaze direction and emotional facial expressions and crucially revealed that the contextual factors (e.g., explicit instruction to process the facial expression and the presence of other emotional faces) can modify and even reverse the AB, suggesting a flexible and more contextualized deployment of attentional resources in face processing.

In three experiments, we tested whether the amount of attentional resources needed to process a face displaying neutral/angry/fearful facial expressions with direct or averted gaze depends on task instructions, and face presentation. To this end, we used a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation paradigm in which participants in Experiment 1 were first explicitly asked to discriminate whether the expression of a target face (T1) with direct or averted gaze was angry or neutral, and then to judge the orientation of a landscape (T2). Experiment 2 was identical to Experiment 1 except that participants had to discriminate the gender of the face of T1 and fearful faces were also presented randomly inter-mixed within each block of trials. Experiment 3 differed from Experiment 2 only because angry and fearful faces were never presented within the same block. The findings indicated that the presence of the attentional blink (AB) for face stimuli depends on specific combinations of gaze direction and emotional facial expressions and crucially revealed that the contextual factors (e.g., explicit instruction to process the facial expression and the presence of other emotional faces) can modify and even reverse the AB, suggesting a flexible and more contextualized deployment of attentional resources in face processing.

Motor resonance (MR) involves the activation of matching motor representations while observing others' actions. Recent research has shown that such a phenomenon is likely to be influenced by higher order variables such as social factors (e.g., ethnic group membership). The present study investigates whether and how the perception of a social threat elicited by an outgroup member and by contextual cues can modulate motor responses while an individual observes others' movements. In an experimental study based on an action observation paradigm, we asked participants to provide answers through computer mouse movements (MouseTracker). We manipulated the agents' group membership (ingroup vs. outgroup) and the social valence of the objects present in a context (neutral vs. threatening) to elicit social menace through contextual cues. Response times and computer mouse trajectories were recorded. The results show a higher level of MR (i.e., participants started to respond earlier and were faster at responding) when observing an action performed by the ingroup members rather than by the outgroup members only when threatening objects are present in a given context. Participants seem to resonate better with their ingroup; conversely, the outgroup member movements tend to delay motor responses. Therefore, we extend prior research going beyond the general ingroup bias effect on MR and showing that the interaction between membership and contextual cues is likely to elicit threat-related stereotypes. Practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Social exclusion is felt as a threat to the human “need to belong” and activates the brain areas related to physical pain. Social exclusion has been proven to drive aggressive behaviours, to create emotional numbness and it also seems to facilitate implicit processing of positive emotions and enhance re-inclusion finalised behaviours (so-called “tuning to positivity”). These effects appear to be mediated by the individual’s empathy. Nevertheless, the effects of social exclusion on emotions and social information processing are unclear. This study aims to test whether exclusion can improve social processing (i.e. emotion recognition and gaze direction discrimination), and whether this can be modulated by empathy. Young adult participants (M = 20; F = 20) were asked to identify either the emotional expression (happy, sad, angry, fearful) or gaze direction (direct vs. averted gaze) of faces after social exclusion (or inclusion) through the Cyberball paradigm. Empathy had previously been estimated through the Empathy Quotient questionnaire. Experimental results on accuracy show that social exclusion makes gaze direction discrimination worse, but not emotion identification. Interestingly, higher empathy was associated with a stronger enhancement of social processing in excluded rather than included participants. Besides, these effects are also modulated by participants’ gender: male participants’ accuracy is lower when they are socially excluded, while female participants tend to show higher accuracy when excluded. This study brings new evidence indicating that social exclusion has an effect only on one of the two crucial social dimensions (gaze direction discrimination, but not emotion identification). Interestingly, participants’ empathy and gender also modulate these effects in different ways. The modulatory effects of participants’ empathy suggest that more empathic people are more sensitive to rejection and pay much more attention to social information. The moderati

The present study aimed at investigating the relation between field dependence- independence, measured by means of the Embedded Figure Test (EFT), and performance on the Simon task, which is usually employed to assess cognitive control processes. 20 participants classified as field-dependent and 20 participants classified as field-independent were administered a Simon task in which they had to emit a lateralized response according to the color of a left or right- presented stimulus by ignoring its location. Results showed a larger Simon effect (i.e., faster responses when stimulus and response locations spatially corresponded than when they did not correspond) for participants classified as field dependent than for those classified as field independent. The analysis of the Simon effect as a function of correspondence sequence showed no difference between the two groups. These results seem to suggest that the ability to deal with a conflict within a trial and the ability to modify performance based on the conflict experienced in a prior trial depend on different mechanisms. Our data suggest that only the first ability is related to the cognitive style of field dependence-independence.

The aim of the study was to investigate how gaze direction of same identity faces impacts on updating and memorizing processes. Faces are multidimensional stimuli, crucial for interpersonal relations. All their features must be bound and combined together to form a coherent social percept; in particular, the combinations between gaze direction and facial expression convey very relevant information concerning behavioral and social appraisal. In two experiments we manipulated the face's social and adaptive meaning by means of different association between gaze direction and facial expression: strong observer self-meaningful associations (e.g., joy-direct gaze) were compared to weak ones (e.g., joy-averted gaze). Shorter latencies were needed to update strongly associated combinations than weak ones (Exp. 1). More interestingly, the updating of strongly associated combinations was faster than simply memorizing them (Exp. 2). The findings are discussed with reference to updating and memorizing processes in social cognition.

The aim of the study was to investigate how gaze direction of same identity faces impacts on updating and memorizing processes. Faces are multidimensional stimuli, crucial for interpersonal relations. All their features must be bound and combined together to form a coherent social percept; in particular, the combinations between gaze direction and facial expression convey very relevant information concerning behavioral and social appraisal. In two experiments we manipulated the face's social and adaptive meaning by means of different association between gaze direction and facial expression: strong observer self-meaningful associations (e.g., joy-direct gaze) were compared to weak ones (e.g., joy-averted gaze). Shorter latencies were needed to update strongly associated combinations than weak ones (Exp. 1). More interestingly, the updating of strongly associated combinations was faster than simply memorizing them (Exp. 2). The findings are discussed with reference to updating and memorizing processes in social cognition.

Social attention cues such as head and gaze direction may deliver conflicting information (i.e., right-oriented head with left-directed gaze). We investigated gaze-direction discriminations in contexts with different proportions of trials with congruent/incongruent head orientation. A distraction-filtering mechanism, which filters-out irrelevant head orientation, and conflict adaptation mechanisms support efficient gaze-direction decisions

Social exclusion has been proven to drive aggressive behaviours and to create emotional numbness. It also seems to facilitate implicit processing of positive emotions and enhance re-inclusion finalised behaviours. These effects seem to be mediated by the individual’s empathy. Nevertheless, the effects of social exclusion on emotions and social information processing are unclear. This study aims to test whether exclusion can improve social processing (i.e., emotion recognition and gaze direction discrimination), and whether this can be modulated by empathy. Young adult participants (M = 15; F =15) were asked to identify either the emotional [removed] happy, sad, angry, fearful) or gaze direction (direct vs. averted gaze) of photographed faces after social exclusion (or inclusion) through the Cyberball paradigm. Empathy had previously been estimated through the Empathy Quotient questionnaire. Experimental results on response times show that social exclusion slows down emotion identification, but not gaze direction discrimination. Interestingly, higher empathy was associated with a stronger enhancement of social processing in excluded rather than included participants: when excluded, participants with higher empathy scores enhanced the recognition of emotion and discrimination of gaze direction, while for participants with lower empathy scores exclusion made their performance worse in both tasks. When included, participants with higher empathy scores got faster RTs than other participants, in both tasks. This study brings new evidence indicating that social exclusion has an effect only on one of the two crucial social dimensions (emotion identification, but not gaze direction discrimination). Interestingly, empathy also modulates these effects in different ways. This suggests that more empathic people are more sensitive to rejection and pay much more attention to social information

The perception and interpretation of other people’s feeling is essential for successful social interaction. As specified by DSM-V, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by “Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts”, “Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity” and “Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). This impairment in social interaction has been reported very early in development (Klin et al., 2008; 2009) and it has been proposed it could be associated with deficits in processing biological motion information (Dakin & Frith, 2005, Pavlova 2005). In typically developed (TD) individuals, point-light display of biological motion (PLDs, Johansson 1973) are sufficient for the perception of a series of social information, included the emotional state of the agent observed (Alaerts et al., 2011; Atkinson et al., 2004; 2011; 2007; Chouchourelou et al., 2006; Clarke et al, 2005, Dittrich et al., 1996). On the contrary, in literature there are less consistent findings regarding individuals with ASD: some studies have reported impairment in the recognition of non-emotional PLDs (Annaz at al., 2010; Blake et al., 2003, Kaiser et al., 2008; 2010; Koldewyn et al., 2010) whereas others have not (Herrington at al., 2007, Freitag et al., 2008, Murphy et al., 2009; Saygin et al., 2010); however, deficits in emotion understanding have been systematically reported in young children (Moore et al., 1997), adolescents (Hubert et al., 2007; Parron et al., 2008) and adults with ASD (Atkinson et al., 2009; Nackaerts et al., 2012; Philip et al., 2010). Therefore, it is not clear yet if the difficulties in social interaction in individual with ASD are related to a general impairment in the processing of biological motion, or to a selective deficit in emotion recognition or to both of these difficulties. In the present study

The present study investigated if the gaze-mediated orienting of attention is modulated by the type of relationship (i.e., cooperative or competitive) established during a previous interaction with a cuieng face. Results showed that in female participants the gaze-cueing effect for competitive contenders was greater than for cooperative contenders

We investigated whether the type of stimulus (pictures of static faces vs. body motion) contributes differently to the recognition of emotions. The performance (accuracy and response times) of 25 Low Autistic Traits (LAT group) young adults (21 males) and 20 young adults (16 males) with either High Autistic Traits or with High Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (HAT group) was compared in the recognition of four emotions (Happiness, Anger, Fear, and Sadness) either shown in static faces or conveyed by moving body patch-light displays (PLDs). Overall, HAT individuals were as accurate as LAT ones in perceiving emotions both with faces and with PLDs. Moreover, they correctly described non-emotional actions depicted by PLDs, indicating that they perceived the motion conveyed by the PLDs per se. For LAT participants, happiness proved to be the easiest emotion to be recognized: in line with previous studies we found a happy face advantage for faces, which for the first time was also found for bodies (happy body advantage). Furthermore, LAT participants recognized sadness better by static faces and fear by PLDs. This advantage for motion kinematics in the recognition of fear was not present in HAT participants, suggesting that (i) emotion recognition is not generally impaired in HAT individuals, (ii) the cues exploited for emotion recognition by LAT and HAT groups are not always the same. These findings are discussed against the background of emotional processing in typically and atypically developed individuals.

The present study investigated if the gaze-cuing effect (i.e., the tendency for observers to respond faster to targets in locations that were cued by others' gaze direction than to not-cued targets) is modulated by the type of relationship (i.e., cooperative or competitive) established during a previous interaction with a cuing face. In two experiments, participants played a series of single-shot games of a modified version of the two-choice Prisoner's Dilemma against eight simulated contenders. They were shown a fictive feedback indicating if the opponents chose to cooperate or compete with them. Opponents' faces were then used as stimuli in a standard gazecuing task. In Experiment 1 females classified as average in competitiveness were tested, while in Experiment 2 females classified as high and low in competitiveness were tested. We found that only in females classified as low and average in competitiveness the gaze-cuing effect for competitive contenders was greater than for cooperative contenders. These findings suggest that competitive opponents represent a relevant source of information within the social environment and female observers with low and average levels of competition cannot prevent from keeping their eyes over them.