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Evidence for past Martian rivers is perhaps the most puzzling and inconsistent present planetary problem, conflicting as it does with current conditions on the planet. This paper emphasizes the similar puzzling evidence that the Earth, as well as Mars, was warmer in the past. Neutrino evidence raises the suggestion that the sun was also “warmer” in the past. A hypothetical cause reconciling all effects is episodic change in solar luminosity on a time-scale of a few hundred million years. This paper outlines requirements and consequences of such a working hypothesis, with pro and con arguments. It is important to try to prove or disprove this hypothesis because it has radical implications for current science. For example, it suggests (1) climates of all the planets have been markedly altered simultaneously by solar changes, sometimes catastrophically; (2) solar changes have been a dominant “forcing function” driving biological speculation and evolution on Earth; (3) the concept of geologic uniformitarianism is somewhat modified by cosmic variables; (4) evolution of water-utilizing intelligent creatures near other stars may be less likely than has been thought, due to catastrophic planetary climate reactions to change in stellar luminosity.

El consenso científico mundial, gracias a los numerosos estudios científicos, ha evidenciado la realidad del cambio climático y sus consecuencias socioeconómicas dramáticas. La lucha contra el cambio climático empezó siendo un problema de la ciencia para convertirse en un problema político de escala global. Para que sea efectiva la lucha contra el cambio climático se necesita una gobernanza climática global que trate de conciliar los países desarrollados y los países en desarrollo en torno a un interés común. Su éxito radica en la participación no sólo de los gobiernos de todo el mundo sino también de todos los actores no gubernamentales que ayudan a la toma de conciencia generalizada para emprender acciones locales. Se analiza la base científica que confirma que el cambio climático es una realidad y que legitima el inicio de un proceso de negociación internacional sobre cambio climático enmarcado en un régimen internacional climático complejo. Desde 1992 con la adopción de la Convención Marco de Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático se conforma este régimen vinculante para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. Será a través de la celebración de las llamadas Conferencias de las Partes que se adopten objetivos y en ciertos casos, Acuerdos internacionales que comprometan los países a mitigar el cambio climático y dotarse de financiación que les permita adaptarse a los impactos negativos del cambio climático. Nos detendremos más detenidamente en el proceso de negociación de la vigésimo primera Conferencia de las Partes celebrada en París el pasado diciembre de 2015 en la que se da un nuevo impulso para luchar contra el cambio climático por parte de los Estados y los actores no gubernamentales y es visto como un punto de inflexión en el régimen climático internacional. Su resultado, como punto de inflexión y momento histórico, hace del Acuerdo internacional de París una de las únicas oportunidades para mitigar y adaptarse al cambio climático a nivel global. De esta manera será posible evitar que acontezcan los peores escenarios previstos para el futuro. ¿Seremos capaces de salvarnos? The global scientific consensus, made possible by scientific studies since the 1980’s, has demonstrated the reality of climate change and its dramatic socioeconomic consequences. The fight against climate change began as a scientific problem and escalated to a political problem on a global scale. The paper analyses the importance of the global climate governance to fight against climate change trying to reconcile the developed countries and developing countries in shaping common interests in order to reduce greenhouse gases emissions. The success of this governance depends not only on the ambitious participation of all the countries of the world, but also on the increased participation of all non-governmental actors that help to create a global awareness towards concrete and local actions. The object of analysis is also to expose the scientific basis of climate change that legitimizes the beginning of a process of international negotiations on climate change framed within a complex international climate regime. Along the climate summits called Conferences of the Parties, different objectives are decided to engage the commitments of all countries to reduce their emissions and provide funding to developing countries to adapt themselves to the negative impacts of the climate change. The paper points out the negotiation process of the twenty-first Conference of the Parties held in Paris in December 2015 and its subsequent international agreement, seen as a turning point in the international climate regime. Le consensus scientifique mondial, grâce à de nombreuses études scientifiques, a démontré laréalité du changement climatique et de ses conséquences économiques dramatiques. La lutte contre lechangement climatique a commencé comme un problème de la science pour devenir un problèmepolitique de l'échelle mondiale. Pour être efficace, la lutte contre le changement climatique unegouvernance climatique mondiale tentent de concilier les pays développés et en développement autourd'un intérêt commun est nécessaire. Son succès réside dans la participation non seulement desgouvernements du monde entier, mais aussi de tous les acteurs non gouvernementaux qui aident la prisede conscience générale à entreprendre des actions locales. la base scientifique confirmant que lechangement climatique est une réalité et qui légitimise le début d'un processus de négociationsinternationales sur le changement climatique encadrée dans un régime complexe de climat internationalest analysé. Depuis 1992, avec l'adoption de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changementsclimatiques de ce régime contraignant est formé pour réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Il serapar la tenue de conférences appelle les Parties objectifs sont adoptés et, dans certains cas, des accordsinternationaux qui engagent les pays à atténuer les changements climatiques et a fourni des fonds pourleur permettre d'adapter aux impacts négatifs du changement climatique. Nous nous arrêterons plus endétail dans le processus de négociation de la vingt et unième Conférence des Parties, tenue à Parisdernière Décembre 2015 où un nouvel élan est donné pour lutter contre le changement climatique par lesÉtats et les acteurs non étatiques et il est considéré comme un point dans le régime climatiqueinternational tournant. Son résultat, comme un point tournant et moment historique, fait l'accordinternational à Paris l'une des seules possibilités d'atténuation et d'adaptation au changement climatiqueau niveau mondial. Cela permet d'éviter les pires scénarios transpirent prévu pour l'avenir. Serons-nouscapables de nous sauver?

Human activities on earth either pose threat or safe haven to human environment because such human activities contribute to climate situation. Using the exposition method, the aim of this paper is to explore religion in the prevention of possible environmental disaster and the mitigation of post disaster scenario. Drawing from the 2011/2012 flood disaster in Nigeria, it shows that it was human induced in the sense that it was partly caused by blockage of water channels such as drainages. The paper argues on a general note that weather and environmental scientist set the agenda for environmental prevention through scientific means but religion helps to work on the mind of the stake holders and carry out the campaign of the agenda to their adherents. By so doing, religion is playing its role in environmental protection.Key words: Climate Destabilization, Study of Religion, the Role of Religion, Climate Change, Nigeria

In the previous papers (1968, 1969), the present writer concluded that the winter temperature in Japan still kept its increasing trend until the end of 1960's while in Europe and North America it had already ceased in 1940's. In this study, the subsequent change up to 1970 are examined with an important result that the winter temperature had begun to fall in Japan at the beginning of 1960's (Fig. 1) while for the summer temperature its decreasing trend had been found thus early in 1940's. A schematic model for these changes is shown in Fig. 3. Before the discussion on main subject, meaning of trend index adopted here and homo-genuity of the temperature records are closely checked. After these preliminary works, dis-tribution maps of the trend indices for winter and summer temperatures during the two periods 1941-60, 1960-70 are constructed (Fig. 4-7). For the climatological explanation of these distribution pattern, some dynamical considerations are given. The main results obtained in this study are as follows: 1) For the representation of the winter cold and summer heat in Japan, the writer adopts the mean temperatures of the coldest and warmest months respectively, because their secular changes are nearly parallel to those of the mean minimum and maximum temperatures of the respective months and the accumulated sum of monthly temperatures lower than critical levels during the whole winter or summer months. Hence they are likely to represent the total state of winter and summer temperatures in the respective years. In a study of temperature fluctuations, mean temperatures for a definite interval, say every five or ten years are often used. However those higher and lower means do not necessarily represent its rising and falling tendency respectively as clearly indicated in Fig. 2. That is, a general trend of temperature cannot be expressed merely by their mean values for the respective periods. Among indices available for us to express such a kind of phenomena, the writer selected the trend index devised by Dr. E. Suzuki as the most preferable one for the purpose of this study. With reference to this index, the writer commented in the previous paper on the recent heavy rainfall in Japan and hence it is omitted here. (See January number of this Journal in 1972, pp. 1-12) 2) Temperature rise is not only caused by the climatic change in a wide area, but in large cities also is highly controlled by the expansion of built-up areas together with the increase of population. Of course, urban influence on the increasing rate of temperature is not the same at different places. With respect to this subject, the writer obtained an important result in the former study (1968) that a relation between the increasing rate of temperature and population growth in Japan is not the same in large cities with their population over 500, 000 as compared with other smaller cities. On the other hand, in the sparsely populated areas such as high mountain tops, protruding ends of promontories, small islands etc., temperature rise due to an artificial heat might be negligible and therefore a true state of temperature variation can be distinctly found. For this reason, seventy two stations selected for this study are classified into the following seven groups by their geographical locations and population : A) Gigant cities with a population over 2, 000, 000 .(Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya) B) Large cities with a population over 500, 000 (Sapporo, Sendai, Hiroshima and Fukuoka) C) Middle class cities with a population 300, 000_??_500, 000 (Kanazawa and other 12 cities) D) Small cities or towns with a population less than 50, 000 (28 places) E) Stations at the high mountain tops such as Ibukiyama (5) F) Stations at the protruding end of promontories (5) G) Stations at the small islands (4)

Climate change has been becoming a major order of business of all including researchers and academics. This is known that global, national and local organizations, institutions and even the individuals are partaking into the issues with their own perspectives and skills of negotiations. Despite the series of international efforts and attempts, there are also a series of national concerns, efforts and attempts in combating against the effects of global climate change. This paper is an attempt to draw on the overview of contexts and concerns of international communities for combating global climate change and its discursive influence in national policy discourses. Moreover, the paper attempts to assess the local socio-cultural discourses and dynamics of climate change in relation to global and national discourses. Finally the paper highlights on how global and local climate change knowledge networks and epistemic communities either from political processes or the socio-economic fabrics are interrelated and determinant to each other. Keywords: climate change; discourses; embeddeness; dynamics; global; local DOI: 10.3126/dsaj.v4i0.4518 Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol.4 2010 pp.143-180

The rate at which peat accumulates has been a matter of interest to geologists ever since the relation between peat deposits and coal beds has been appreciated. More recently the problem has assumed fresh importance because of the increasing use of peat microfossils as a key to post-Pleistocene climate. In particular the relative percentages of different kinds of fossil pollen preserved in peat have been much studied in Europe. The purpose of such studies has been to interpret the changes in vegetation adjacent to the peat deposit during the course of its formation. Since most of the pollen preserved is brought in by the wind, the picture of changes appears to be somewhat generalized for the locality, and, therefore, it is often of value in interpreting climatic history. In a general way such evidence in Europe has supported the earlier findings of Blytt, Sernander and others regarding the shifts in moisture and temperature during postglacial times (Biilow, '29). In North America a number of pollen analyses have been made, some of which are not regarded by their authors as shedding light on climatic change. The senior writer, however, has now examined material from Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa and Arkansas. In every case he has obtained what seems like reasonable evidence of considerable climatic changes during postglacial times (Sears, '32). The most certain of these changes is a period of recent relatively dry climate followed by a gradual change to the somewhat more humid climate of the present. In the case of deep columns of peat from Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Iowa there appears to be good evidence of an earlier dry period separated from the one just described byA a period of marked humidity. If these indications may l)e trusted the postglacial climate of North America has exhibited fluctuations similar to those of Europe. In Europe the postglacial climates have been accurately dated by de Geer's measurement of clay layers (Billow, '29). Since this means of measurement has not been generally available in this country we have endeavored to find other means. Of these the most hopeful has seemed to be a determination of the mean rate of peat accumulation particularly in the Ohio-Michigan area with which we are most familiar. The following paper describes the results obtained in this connection. Before proceeding with the paper acknowledgments should be made of

The construction of a qualitative theory of climate change based on systems theory is discussed. Specifically, the importance of initial conditions, nonlinearities, feedback mechanisms, forcing functions and stability concepts, as they pertain to the climatic behavior of the Earth are shown. Suggestions regarding areas of prime importance are advanced and feedback mechanisms are identified. The paper serves three goals: (1) provides a first approximation qualitative model outline, useful for subsequent quantitative calculations regarding climate change, (2) introduces systems theorists to the subject of climate, and (3) summarizes current literature in the field of climate behavior, its modification and simulation. A first-approximation, quantitative model based on the principles discussed in this paper will be the subject of a second paper.

The distribution of forest trees in Uganda appears to be reasonably well known, at least so far as occurrence in flora-areas is concerned (Eggeling & Dale, 1952; Anon. 1952 et seq.; Hamilton, in press; Hedberg, 1957). A number of well-marked patterns of distribution can be identified. Pollen diagrams now available for Uganda show that there have been, at least locally, very large changes in vegetation during the last 15.000 years. In this paper, the significance of distributional patterns is considered in the light of pollen-analytical and other evidence of vegetational and climatic change.

The paper reviews the present understanding of the climatic effects of stratospheric chemical composition within the general framework of climate modeling. The modulation of radiative fluxes by carbon dioxide, ozone, and aerosols provides an input to climate models. It is difficult observationally to distinguish between climate variation forced by changes in these or other external parameters and internal noise of the system. Indeed, ozone concentration is so coupled to atmospheric dynamics that it should be regarded as one of the internal variables. One-dimensional vertical and latitudinal climate models are described, and their conclusions as to tropospheric and stratospheric climate change discussed.

The second objective of GARP—climate research—comes more and more into the focus of the scientific community, and the use of satellites and spacelabs to acquire the necessary data is discussed widely. From an inspection of the results of current climate model computations it is attempted in this paper to deduce the criticality of atmospheric parameters with respect to climate and to deduce the required measuring accuracy to get useful data for further climate studies. It emerges that some quantities as the solar flux and albedo have to be determined to better than 1%, and that much improved global information about particles, clouds and gas distribution is necessary. The impact of these requirements on future satellite systems is discussed. One result is the need for comparative and calibrating spacelab missions as well as for adequate ground truth or in situ operations.

Climate change and its effects on the water resources therefore also, livelihood is a major global concern. Water scarcity is already a major problem for the world poor, and changes in rainfall and temperature associated with climate change will likely make this worse. This indicates that efficient and effective management of the available water becomes essential for overall development, improving livelihoods and maintaining food sufficiency. Watershed management carries number of activities managing water resource to address the ever increasing water resource problems. Therefore, watershed management could be one of the tools to cope with climate change managing scarce water resource. This paper describes some of the watershed activities dealing with water resource management. Key Words: Watershed management, Climate change, Run off, Degraded land rehabilitation DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2526 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp33

Two coastal sites on Long Island, the Stony Brook site and the Baxter site, are examined in the light of Fairbridge's data on sea level fluctuations during the last 7000 years. In each case, the coastline at the time of occupation is reconstructed, and inferences are m a d e about the ecological setting. Archaeological data pertaining to subsistence pattern are then reviewed in the light of the probable local environment at the time of occupation. Orient culture occupations at both sites date from about 2900 B.P., when sea level is believed to have been about 10 feet below the present level. The Orient component midden at Stony Brook contains more oyster shell than any other species of mollusk, while that at the Baxter site contains a large percentage of clam shell and almost no oyster. This difference cannot be explained on cultural grounds, but can be shown to reflect local environmental factors existing under conditions of lowered sea level. The midden contents at other times of occupation are found to be consistent with the corresponding sea levels. A RCHAEOLOGISTS working on the Northeast coast have been conscious for a long time that shoreline changes have been taking place in this area. Sites like Boylston Street (Johnson and others 1942) and Grassy Island (Johnson and Raup 1947) in Massachusetts, and Grannis Island (Sargent 1952) and Pilots Point (Glynn 1953) in Connecticut, where archaeological materials have been recovered from below present high water levels, give ample proof that sea levels were lower at these sites at some time in the past. In fact, geologists have used the data from some of these sites in arriving at conclusions relative to former sea levels. Only quite recently, however, has sufficient information become available on the magnitude and chronology of sea-level fluctuations in the late Wisconsin and Recent periods to permit archaeologists to attempt broad correlations with archaeological data from coastal sites. Some of these possible relationships are explored in this paper. Specifically, two sites on Long Island are examined in the light of this newly available data. With the time of occupation, as determined from radiocarbon or typological dating, as the point of departure, the probable coastline at the time is reconstructed, and inferences made about the ecological settings of the sites. The archaeological material pertaining to subsistence pattern is examined in the light of these reconstructed settings. GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The work of Rhodes W. Fairbridge (1958) of the Columbia University Department of Geology provides the most readily useful basis for such study. Fairbridge's research has led him to conclude that fluctuations in world climate will be reflected almost immediately in changes in the amount of the world's water supply locked up in glacial ice, and that therefore " . . s a level is a most variable plane, a sensitive indicator of even minor world climate change" (Fairbridge 1960a: 79). Using radiocarbon dates from samples of buried peat and drowned forests along with other types of evidence, he has constructed a series of curves showing world-wide sea-level fluctuations. The portion of the curve covering the past 7000 years was published recently (Fairbridge 1960b: 51) and is reproduced here (Fig. 1). It shows that, while sea level had reached its present stand by 6000 years ago, a series of oscillations reaching as far as 10 feet above and below the present level have taken place since then. These are believed to correspond to fluctuations in mean annual temperature ranging from about 5?F. above to 3-4?F. below the present mean. Since Fairbridge is interested in world-wide sea-level fluctuations, rather than actual coastline changes at any particular locality, he has constructed his curve using only data from localities where he believes the land to have been relatively stable, neither rising nor falling. Hence it can be applied directly, without correction factors, only to such stable localities. Unfortunately for the Northeastern archaeologist, the geologists are not yet fully agreed on what has been happening in this respect in the Long Island-Southern New England area. According to Newman and Fairbridge (1960a, 1960b), the tide gauge record for New York harbor shows that since 1893 there has been an apparent rise in sea level of about 4 mm. per year. They suggest that world-wide sea level is currently rising by only about 1.2 mm. per year, and that the difference of 2-3 mm. per year (about 6 to 9 feet per 1000 years) must reflect local changes crustal subsidence possibly combined with other factors (such as ocean currents, wind). The comparable subsidence figure for

IN order to appreciate a given culture or phase of culture at one point in time it is important to have a knowledge of the possibilities that are open to its bearers through the environment. An awareness of the environment and its changes is even more important in order to understand the dynamics of the culture history of any area. It is with this objective, a more complete knowledge of the climate of a particular region with an attempt at understanding its culture history, that this paper has been written.* The region under consideration, the Coconino Plateau (Fig. 1), lies in the southwestern corner of the Colorado Plateau, immediately south of the Grand Canyon. This area was occupied prehistorically by the Cohonina (Colton 1939: 25-9), and historically by a continuation of this group, the Havasupai (Schwartz 1955). The Coconino Plateau is located west of the Little Colorado River and south of the Grand Canyon. It is roughly delimited by the San Francisco Peaks on the southwest, by Highway 66 on the south, and by the Aubry Cliffs on the west. This plateau is nearly coextensive with the drainage of Cataract Creek, which empties into the Colorado River in the recesses

There is widespread consensus that human activity has had a significant impact on global climatic patterns which will have important consequences for much of society. Although there has been much research on the relationship between corporate environmental performance and corporate financial performance, empirical testing of the association between proactive corporate climate-change strategies and financial (or accounting) performance is still in its infancy. Based on the logic embodied in the Natural Resource-Based View (NRBV) of the firm, firms that successfully implement strategies to lessen their effect on climate change should outperform competitors who are less proactive in such efforts. This study uses a matched-pair design to empirically demonstrate that firms with proactive climate change strategies achieved significantly higher levels of accounting performance than competitors that were less proactive, thus providing additional support for the NRBV. Introduction To satiate the needs of capital market stakeholders, firm managers are compelled to identify, formulate, and implement strategies aimed at achieving sustainable competitive advantage (SCA) and superior profitability. Unfortunately, traditional corporate strategies used in market-based economies have negatively impacted the natural environment in ways that threaten the ecosystems supporting mankind's existence. The multiplicity of problems resulting from climate change and the requisite measures needed to decrease (or stabilize) the atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases has become one of the most widely discussed environmental issues among journalists, politicians, environmentalists, academics, businesses, and other stakeholders. Indeed, the consequences of global climate change, such as rising sea levels due to melting glaciers, the spread of non-native pathogens, drought in some areas and greater flooding in others, are well documented (IPCC, 2007; McKibbin & Wilcoxen, 2002); and the United States' abstinence from the Kyoto Protocol will not protect it from the environmental and economic consequences of global climate change. If atmospheric carbon dioxide doubles by 2050, it will cost the U.S. an estimated $68 billion annually and the annual global cost will be approximately $304 billion (Hoffman, 2005). Although there has been much research examining the association between corporate environmental performance and organizational outcomes (e.g., Bansal & Hunter, 2003; Margolis & Walsh, 2003; Orlitzky, Schmidt, & Rynes, 2003; Russo & Fouts; 1997; Sharma & Vrendenburg, 1998), there are no published empirical studies that specifically examine whether firms pursuing proactive climate change strategies financially outperform competitors that are less proactive. To-date, the extant literature has focused on firm motivations for pursuing climate change strategies (Levy & Kolk, 2002; Kolk & Pinske, 2004, 2005, 2007b; Okereke, 2007; Porter & Reinhart, 2007), corporate political lobbying strategies regarding climate change (Kolk & Pinkse, 2007a), and the degree to which global firms voluntarily commit to reducing their impact on climate change (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2006). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between proactive climate change strategies and accounting performance. In this paper, we describe how highly proactive firms typically engage in three broad climate-change initiatives aimed at reducing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions: (1) by developing energy substitutes for oil and coal, such as wind and solar power, (2) by developing renewable energy sources (e.g., hydrogen and other fuel cells), and (3) by working collaboratively with firms, governments, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders toward large-scale climate-change solutions. We then show how these three climate-change initiatives are consistent with the logic embodied in the NRBV, a unique perspective of SCA based on the inter-relationship between the firm and the natural environment (Hart, 1995). …

Specimens of Jurassic and Cretaceous Belemnoidea were analyzed and their paleotemperature record compiled from mass-spectrometric measurements. The data are compared with information assembled from other fields of investigation. It is demonstrated that from a subtropical climate in the later Jurassic, a more diversified one developed in the Cretaceous. From the rather cool conditions of the Neocomian, a temperature climax was reached in Albian times-to be followed by a decline attaining its minimum in Cenomanian waters. Later, another temperature climax occurred-in the Coniacian-Santonian. Subsequently, a gradual lowering of temperature took place during the Campanian and was succeeded by cool, stable conditions in the Maestrichtian. This picture of Cretaceous climatic change was derived from the analyses of Mesozoic material from Germany and Poland described in detail in the present paper and supplemented by examination of additional specimens from western Europe. It is possible that the late Cretaceous ...

The author reviews the work done by himself and by Bezrukova-and Rubashev at the Pulkovo Observatory in relating fluctuations in the characteristics of the general circulation of the earth's atmosphere over the Northern Hemisphere to fluctuations in solar activity, on the one hand, and to climatic fluctuations, on the other. The general circulation of the atmosphere is thus found to meet the requirements of an intermediate link in the research system: sun—climatic change. This paper was read at the New York conference on solar variations, climatic change and related geophysical problems in January 1961.

The gaseous products of combustion are emitted to the atmosphere at rates which are approaching those of the natural processes by which the atmosphere is maintained at a steady-state composition. This paper reviews the evidence of recent global climatic changes and the possibility that changes in atmospheric composition due to combustion emissions have been the cause. The discussion is developed from the premise that the atmosphere is a biological cybernetic system and that combustion emissions constitute a perturbation of this system.

Nepal has observed trend of annual increase in temperature per decade by 0.41°C which is much higher than global average. Climate change is relatively new challenge of global scale but have strong local effects. The evidences of the global warming and climate change are more prominent on the Himalayan region of the globe with melting of ice, glacier retreat, and worst of all the incidence of glacial lake outburst floods with the aftermath falling directly on the ecosystem. The most critical areas are the resource poor developing countries like Nepal which are first to face this calamity yet helpless to implement any concrete ideas still. Nepal has to develop its mechanism to disseminate information regarding climate change and its rational use in planning and implementing policy processes with simultaneous approach on the research to follow the trend of climate change. Thus, this paper focuses on Nepal strategies to cope with challenges of climate change keeping in view the shifting focus of global climate policy. Key Words: Climate change, Global warming, Glacial retreat, Depleting ice, Ecosystem DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2536 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp138-144

Glacier lakes are common phenomena in the Himalaya region of Nepal. Glacier lake outburst floods have repeatedly caused the death tolls and severe damage to downstream infrastructures. In Himalayas, a vital uncertainty about the glacier lake hazard potential still exists, thereby the effects of accelerating rates of glacier retreat and expansion of Glacier Lake could be the wake of recent global warming and resulting climatic changes. The paper, first describes the general different-level approach upon which the study is based. Then, in the methodological part, applicable remote sensing techniques, geographic information system (GIS) and statistical methods are presented. Observed data of lake area, volume, and depth having similar lake characteristics reported in the different literature are used to develop empirical equations by using statistical methods. The values of r 2 (coefficient of determination) - obtained are very high (r 2 =0.939 for depth – area relationship and r 2 = 0.990 for volume – area relationship). The comparison of the empirical expression clearly indicated that there is more than 90% variation in the dependent variable, lake volume,as explained by the linear regressions in both cases. Area of Imja glacier lake for different years are determined from the available satellite imagery and volume of the Imja glacier lake are estimated using the expression: V = 0.094 A 1.453 .developed from linear regression analysis of the observed data. Similarly, mean depth can be estimated by using the expression: D = 0.94 A 0.452 . After the preparation of maps and data, a scheme of decision criteria for the evaluation of hazard potential of Imja glacier lake is established. A list of decision criteria is a documented set of factors that are used to examine and compare for evaluating the hazard potential of a glacier lake. The empirical scores are given in terms of hazard magnitude for hazard rating. Analysis of Imja glacier lake based on the empirical scoring system clearly indicated that GLOF risk of the possible outburst from Imja glacier lake is MODERATE . A systematic application of remote sensing based methods for glacier lake outburst flood risk assessment is applicable and thus recommended. Keywords: Glacier lake outburst; remote sensing; risk assessment; hazard potential; empirical parameters; climate change DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jhm.v7i1.5618 JHM 2010; 7(1): 75-91

Este trabajo busca analizar el problema del cambio climático y sus consecuencias en la movilidad humana y la vulneración de derechos fundamentales ocasionada por los desplazamientos forzados que ocurren como resultado de este proceso antropógeno, poniendo en evidencia la desprotección jurídica existente en relación a los refugiados climáticos y realizando una aproximación al término “refugiado climático”. Adicionalmente se analiza el ordenamiento jurídico ecuatoriano en lo referente al mandato constitucional y el Proyecto de Ley de Movilidad Humana en el contexto del cambio climático. This paper analyzes the problem of climate change and its consequences on human mobility and the violation of fundamental rights caused by forced displacements, which occur as a result of this anthropogenic process, highlighting the existing legal lack of protection in relation to climate refugees and making an approach to the term "climate refugee". Additionally, the Ecuadorian legal system in relation to the constitutional mandate and the Bill of Human Mobility in the context of climate change is analyzed. Cet article analyse le problème du changement climatique et ses conséquences sur la mobilitéhumaine et la violation des droits fondamentaux causés par les déplacements forcés qui se produisent à lasuite de ce processus anthropique, mettant en évidence la vulnérabilité juridique existant en ce quiconcerne les réfugiés climatiques et faire une approche du terme «réfugié climatique». En outre, lesystème juridique équatorien par rapport au mandat constitutionnel et le projet de loi de la mobilitéhumaine dans le contexte du changement climatique est analysé.

El mecanismo de mitigación para el cambio climático, REDD+, representa una se las estrategias financieras que utiliza el pago por servicios ambientales para reducción de emisiones de carbono. Nacida dentro de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático, REDD+ ha sido diseñada para contribuir a la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera a causa de la deforestación y degradación de los bosques, en los países en vías de desarrollo con importantes masas forestales. Para fortalecer el mecanismo se han creado salvaguardas, que, aplicadas al mecanismo, tendrán la función de precautelar los derechos de las poblaciones que habitan y hacen uso de los bosques, reconocidos por los ordenamientos internos de los países, así como a escala internacional. El diseño del mecanismo REDD+ contempla los métodos financieros para su funcionamiento. Fuentes y distribución de los recursos. El presente trabajo explica cómo las salvaguardas son empleadas en dichos esquemas de financiación con el fin de que los derechos estén garantizados en todos los componentes de REDD+. The mechanism for climate change mitigation, REDD + represents a financial strategie in which payment for environmental services to reduce carbon emissions is used. Born in the Framework Convention of the United Nations Climate Change, REDD + is designed to help reduce emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere caused by deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries with tropical forests. To strengthen the mechanism, they have been established safeguards, which, applied to the mechanism will guarantee the human rights of populations living and making use of forests, recognized by the internal systems of the countries and in an international scale.The design of REDD+ provides financial methods for operation. The financial sources and the distribution of the resources. This paper explains how the safeguards are employed in these financing schemes in order to protect these rights in all components of REDD +. Le mécanisme pour atténuer le changement climatique, REDD + représente une des stratégiesfinancières sont utilisées par le paiement des services environnementaux pour réduire les émissions decarbone. Né à la Convention-cadre de l'évolution du climat des Nations Unies, REDD + est conçu pouraider à réduire les émissions de GES dans l'atmosphère en raison de la déforestation et de la dégradationdes forêts dans les pays le développement des forêts importantes. Pour renforcer le mécanisme qu'ils ontété mis en place des garanties qui, appliquée au mécanisme fonctionnera à la sauvegarde des droits despopulations vivant et faire usage des forêts, reconnu par les systèmes internes des pays et à l'étranger. Laconception du mécanisme REDD + fournit des méthodes financières pour le fonctionnement. Sources etrépartition des ressources. Ce document explique comment les garanties sont employés dans cessystèmes de financement afin que les droits sont garantis dans toutes les composantes de la REDD +.

The Wisconsin glacial stage is classified on the basis of stratigraphy into six glacial substages, named, from older to younger, Farmdale, Iowan, Tazewell, Cary, Mankato, and Valders. In this paper names are proposed for the intraglacial substages not previously designated, completing the sequence as follows: These divisions fit the natural succession and provide the basis for historical and climatic interpretations of a broad scope, be they glacial advances, pauses, retreats, stagnation, eustatic changes of sea level, events beyond the ice sheet, changes of biotas, climatic changes and climatic controls, and analysis of radiocarbon dating. Valley trains were deposited during active maximum and submaximum stands of the glaciers and were in part followed by glacial torrents. The latter occurred when the icecap was being reduced and sea level was being raised. Except in the case of the Valders, another refrigeration followed, but the climatic change that halted the advance of the Valders was revolutionary. ...

Lake Victoria has long been advanced as an example of a lake in which the physical limnological changes have proceeded side by side with biological changes. The paper summarizes recent geological findings and indicates the necessity of revising assumptions made in the biological literature concerning the geological evolution of the lake. It is argued that the revised geological history provides a simple explanation of the main features of the lake ichthyofauna. It is also consistent with the known biological changes. A mid-Pleistocene inception is postulated for the lake; it was formed as a shallow basin resulting from cross-warping of a well-developed westward-flowing plateau drainage. In its early stages, as the pre-lake rivers were ponded-up, several separate dendritic, swampy lakes must have existed. These gradually became interconnected, lost their outlet to the west and were drained northwards by the Nile. Subsequent fluctuations in level have been generally negative and have resulted from incision of the lake outflow not climatic change.

This paper summarizes some ideas on global climate, in particular how and why climatic change is dependent on certain characteristics of the atmosphere. It should provide a framework of understanding on which ecologists may place some of the complex issues and arguments they encounter pertaining to interactions between air pollution and global climatic change. Two mathematical models are presented and illustrated. A model of the radiant energy exchange within the earth-atmosphere system provides the basis for an explanation of the "greenhouse effect," and a qualitative examination of current proposals about the role of air pollution in global climatic change. The model of the global balance between radiative and intra-hemispheric convective heat exchange permits calculations to suggest how the vigor and frequency of large scale storm systems may respond to changes in the radiation balance.

There is a worldwide consensus that climate change is a real, rapidly advancing and widespread threat facing this century. This is a crucial issue in Himalayan and special in Nepal because of its possible impact on water resource, biodiversity, and consequence on economic growth of the region. The increase trend of glacial retreat and variability on temperature and participation has the direct impact on the water resource and hydropower development. Mountain regions are particularly vulnerable, both because warming trends are higher and the impacts are magnifed by the extreme changes in altitude over small distances. It indicates the great variability of hydro-climatic variability in major rivers and their tributaries. Decrease runoff will have direct impact on the hydropower development, but there is uncertainty about the role of spatial variability of changing climatic scenarios and their possible impact for hydropower development in large and middle rivers. This paper presents the scenarios of climate change in Nepal in terms of hydro-climatic variability. The frst part describes hydro-climatic variability and its uncertainty for hydropower development, and the second part deals with the mitigation of uncertainties. Key words: Climate change; Deglaciation; GLOF; Water resource; Hydrological cycle; Hydropower; Himalayas; Nepal DOI: 10.3126/hn.v6i0.4190 Hydro Nepal Vol 6, January 2010 Page : 31-34 Uploaded Date: 24 January, 2011

Mesozoic palaeogeography and palaeocliniatology of Eastern Asia are discussed here with reference to crustal deformations and the development of floras and faunas.2) Insofar as the forest composition is concerned, the change of flora is in Eastern Asia found greater within the Mesophyticum than between the Palaeoand Meso-phyticum and this change undoubtedly means the climatic change, if one consider the depauperation of coal measures, vertical distribution of aluminous shales and other aspects in the Permo-Triassic formations.2) The geoanticlinal upheaval of the Akiyoshi orogenic zone must he the cause of this climatic change, because the zone of upheaval is known to have teen extending from Japan to Tonkin through. Hainan and the terrain where the climate has changed, was embraced by this axis of elevation.3). In the oscillation zone of strand line after the Akiyoshi paroxysm the luxuriant forest which was the Rhaeto-Liassic type of flora, was introduced as early as Carnic or even in the Ladino-Carnic transition.4) A trend of research greatly advanced in recent years was in the Mesozoic non-marine faunas on the continent, as the salient facts thus obtained being summarized in this paper. As the result of this research the five distinct faunas called Daido, Jehol, Naktong, Shiragi and Sungari are distinguished in the Koreoa-Manchurian land and their ages determined at Upper Triassic to Liassic, Middle and Upper Jurassic, Lower Cretaceous, Middle Cretaceous and Upper Cretaceous respectively. The palaeogeographic changes through these five epochs are now well deciphered.5) In conclusion it can be mentioned that the Akiyoshi And Sakawa cycles of orogeny are of prime importance in the tectonic development not only in the festoon islands of Japan but also on the continent of Eastern Asia, and in the history of biota, and climatic change also they bear a great importance.

Climate change and its impact on human survival have been today's major challenge and key topics of discussion globally. When considering the catastrophic impacts climate change will bring to earth, in-depth studies on the mechanics and chemistry of climate changes has been emerging. Simultaneously, international and national policies to reduce the vulnerability from climate change have been developed. This article discusses environmental retrospect and climate change issues and highlights efforts taken by global community to reduce GHG. An analysis through an equity lens is made between developed and developing nations and distinction of science and post normal science, and how skeptics revolve around the myth of climate changing ‘naturally' is discussed. A brief status of climate change in Nepal has been mentioned and some mitigation and adaptation measures that can be carried out at the institutional and individual level to start solving the climate crisis conclude the paper. Key Words: Global warming, Climate change, International policies, Intra- generational equity, GHG, Renewable energy, Individual adaptation DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2527 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp79-90

THE late Sir Aurel Stein made archeological observations which led him to believe that there has been a significant decrease in the rainfall of Baluchistan since prehistoric times due to a change in climate (Stein 1931). This belief has been widely accepted and forms the background for Sir John Marshall's interpretation of the remains of the Indus Civilization (Marshall 1931:2). The views of these two scholars have been repeated by later authors (Vats 1940:4; Piggott 1950:134-135; Wheeler 1953:5-6; Spate 1954:145), so that the established position on the subject in archeological literature put in its mildest form is that ". . . a certain degree of climatic change is beyond dispute..." (Wheeler 1953:6). The degree of certainty which may be granted to this assumption depends, first, upon the validity of the individual inferences drawn from each category of evidence, and secondly, upon the extent to which such inferences lead to a common interpretation. Such a process of reasoning is necessary for the reconstruction of environment, which in turn is necessary to the full understanding of ancient cultures. It is, however, a process beset with difficulty and opportunity for error, and the conclusions reached should be subjected to constant critical review in the light of the available evidence. The lack of such a critical review in regard to the assertions made about ancient climate in the Baluchistan-Indus area makes this paper appropriate at the present time.

Climate change is predicted and currently observed to especially affect the rural poor, and some sort of support for adaptation is relevant. This paper tests two vulnerability assessment indexes in Lete and Kunjo VDCs in Mustang District: the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the Livelihood Effect Index (LEI). The indexes are completed based on primary data from 60 randomly selected respondents and the vulnerabilities at VDC and household levels are assessed. The figures resulting from the vulnerability assessments correspond with contextual information from the area elicited during key informant interviews and the methods are concluded useful in a Nepalese context. Both indexes validly reflect the relative differences between the two VDCs in terms of vulnerability to climate change impacts and factors contributing to it and both could therefore usefully form the basis for a nationally applicable index to identify and prioritise mitigation needs. However, a number of challenges to using indexes and basing them on respondents’ perceptions are recognised. Key words: Climate change; livelihoods; Mustang; vulnerability DOI: 10.3126/banko.v20i1.3503 Banko Janakari , Vol. 20, No. 1 pp.9-16

This paper reviews some of the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the Study of Man's Impact on Climate (SMIC). This study was conducted in Stockholm during the summer of 1971 under the sponsorship of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and was hosted by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. Thirty scientists from fourteen countries devoted 3 weeks of concentrated effort to develop a consensus concerning the present and future scale of man's activities that may affect the global temperature and heat balance and to determine whether such effects may become large enough to cause climate changes for the whole earth or for large regions. The principal conclusions of the study was that man may indeed be affecting local, regional, and global climate through a large number of varied activities. The gaps in present knowledge were identified and recommendations on how to fill these gaps were developed.

The existence of Quaternary climatic fluctuations in Southern Africa has been difficult to prove conclusively since, unlike countries of the northern hemisphere, glacial evidence is non-existent Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that periods both wetter and drier than now experienced have occurred in the past. Evidence is controversial and widely scattered and as yet no single chronology is accepted nor has the contemporaneity of events in the northern and southern hemisphere been accepted. Recent studies of karst landforms developed on the Transvaal Proterozoic Dolomite Series have shown that karst environments may preserve valuable evidence of alternating wet and dry periods. In this paper the types of evidence are discussed and possible conclusions are demonstrated. Since evidence may exist on the surface and underground and be derived from either the morphology of the landforms themselves or from depositional sequences, a number of corroborative, contemporaneous sequences are often availab...

We describe in this paper a set of general circulation model experiments on possible climate changes caused by man's generation of thermal energy or pollution. Three experiments were carried out: one in which we introduced only a small initial error, one in which we added the expected ultimate levels of thermal energy generation, and one in which we added a negative amount of thermal energy. In an three experiments, we obtained the same results, indicating that the thermal pollution effect is probably small compared to the natural fluctuations of the model. We also discuss some limitations of the present model for inferring the proper climatic-change response.

The paper opens with a general discussion of the radiation balance of the earth, and of the influence of changes of extraterrestrial solar radiation on the mean temperature of the earth. It is emphasized that the simple black-body radiation model frequently used to relate terrestrial mean temperature changes to solar radiation changes is not necessarily valid. Alternative models, based on information regarding the seasonal variation of the earth’s heat balance, indicate a substantially stronger dependence of temperature on solar radiation than that predicted by the black-body model. The climatological importance of changes in the earth’s orbital elements, given that the heat-storage influence of the oceans acts to suppress seasonal contrasts induced by such changes, is concluded to be inadequate as an explanation of long-term glacial cycles. The role of carbon dioxide fluctuations in climatic change is also considered, and found wanting as a prime cause of glacial cycles.

Sunardi, Wiegleb G. 2016. Climate-induced hydrological changes and the ecology of tropical freshwater biota. Biodiversitas 17: 322-331. Climate change is believed to pose adverse effects to biodiversity of aquatic systems, with no exception of those in tropical areas. However, next few decades species extinction is suggested as dark future as we lack researches uncovering how climate change threats the aquatic biota. Unluckily, the tropical freshwater systems are expected to suffer more severe impacts of climate change, from heavy floods or extended drought than do the boreal areas. A comprehensive understanding of biota’ performance in face of climatic pressures, will guide the further necessary researches. This paper presents a review on the available researches addressing ecological effects of the most influential climatic parameter in tropic area, the hydrological regime, on freshwater biota. The research reveal that the extreme water fluctuations induced by climate change have negatively affected the performance of freshwater biota. In the next few decades, climate change seems to remain as one of the main threats for freshwater ecosystems, and is responsible for the lost of itsbiodiversity.

In our days, communities have to face high level of water and food consumption based on uncertain supplies and growing demands. Thus, they work to prevent floods, soil erosion, to supply fresh water for population, industry and irrigation and to redirect streams and rivers in order to increase the food production. On the other hand, climate changes increased the frequency of extreme events like droughts and floods, and water management became a matter of great concern, in order to protect and preserve fertile land and drinkable water resources. Powerful software are needed to help environmental specialists to develop reliable projects for sustainable land development, in a short time. In the present paper, we will briefly present AutoCAD Civil 3D 2010, the most powerful software application released by Autodesk Inc., a short time ago. Using AutoCAD Civil 3D 2010 components together with new set of extensions, named Hydraflow Extension, land development specialists can deal with a large variety of hydrologic and hydraulic aspects, such as delineating watersheds and drainage areas and computing time of concentration and other rainfall-runoff relationship for the designated basins.

Urbanisation, climate change, footloose economies, multi-culturality and resource constraints pose unprecedented challenges for local governments today. In the developing world the gulf between needs and finance remains acute. Many western countries forced to reduce public spending in the wake of the sovereign debt crisis, are struggling to reconcile the need for efficiency savings with local pressure to maintain service standards and working conditions. This special double issue of the journal features a selection of papers presented at the third Commonwealth Local Government Research Colloquium held in Cardiff on 13-15 March 2011 which explored these and other important contemporary challenges. Hosted by the School of City and Regional Planning and the Centre for Local and Regional Government Research at Cardiff University, the colloquium provided a valuable opportunity for scholars from across the Commonwealth to present research on three key themes: sustainable democracy and governance, sustainable economic development and environmental sustainability.

Dr. Ellsworth Huntington, who died recently at the age of seventy-one, was well known for his views on the dominant effect of climate on human affairs. As a student of geography under Prof. W. M. Davis, he spent the years from 1900 to 1906 in the exploration of Asia Minor and Central Asia, his first paper being an account of the Upper Euphrates published in 1902. In Central Asia he was struck by the evidence that large populations formerly inhabited regions now arid and deserted, and from these and other historical studies, including the changes of level of the Caspian Sea, he developed the theory that during the past few thousand years there have been great oscillations of climate. These researches were published in “The Pulse of Asia” in 1907 and aroused much controversy among geographers. In the following years he extended his studies of climatic change to Palestine and North America, and he was one of the pioneers in the measurement of tree-rings as climatic indicators. These researches led him to the view that the ideal climate for human vigour is one of moderate but rapidly fluctuating temperatures, which is best, developed in the storm-belts of temperate latitudes; and in “Civilization and Climate” (1915) he compared estimates of the level of existing civilizations in different countries, obtained in various ways, with their level of climatic energy, finding remarkably close agreement. In the same book he extended his studies of the effect of climatic changes on the history of ancient civilizations, including a new version of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.

Any plan for military preparedness based on a defense of this hemisphere would be incomplete without proper consideration for the role of climatic factors in American warfare. Adherence to the Monroe Doctrine may necessitate the sudden dispatch of troop units with considerable striking power sufficient to prevent invasion or to break enemy footholds in any part of the Americas. Extending from one arctic region to the other, the Americas present all types of climate and all varieties of climatic change. Diseases caused by abrupt climatic change or by prolonged exposure are manifold and constitute important problems of preventive medicine in warfare. Troop movements, therefore, must always carefully take into account the degree of climatic change involved lest the efficiency of the fighting force be considerably, even dangerously, impaired. It is my purpose in this paper to outline the principal factors of this important problem and to present a basic and

If an apology is necessary for the introduction of that concerning which so much has already been written, it is found in the vast importance of the subject, the wide diversity of opinions, the rather general absence of clearly defined knowledge and the increasing mass of literature extolling without limit the virtues of special methods of treatment. It is not my purpose to advocate unduly the adaptability of any climate or climates to the various stages of the disease. To present a plea for the more rational and conservative measures of treatment in a climate appropriate to the individual case, in opposition to the present employment of serum-therapy in its various modifications, is the object of this paper. As a preliminary postulate, I will submit that climate in conjunction with painstaking attention to details of management offers to the pulmonary invalid greater assurance of improvement than can be otherwise obtained.

The subject of animal-population cycles has been quite thoroughly reviewed in recent literature. Some of the old ideas regarding the cause of such cycles have been reappraised and several new theories have been advanced. Palmgren (1949) and Cole (1951) have proposed that the so-called cycles are merely random fluctuations in animal numbers. Lack (1954b) has concluded that predators may be responsible for the regular cyclic decline in some animal populations, and Siivonen and Koskimies (1955) have presented evidence to show that a lunar cycle may be the immediate cause for these animal cycles. It is not the intention of this paper to disprove any of these theories, but rather to present evidence to show that these cycles may be merely the result of variations in quantity and the nutritive quality of available food. Braestrup (1940) suggested that a decline in the quality of food as a result of a regular climatic change may cause hare cycles, but subsequent study did not bear out the climatic cycles. He also expressed the belief that nutritional problems may result from overutilization of key food species long before any general overutilization of the food supply is apparent. Grange (1949) proposed that cycles were the result of the interreaction between herbivorous mammals and their food supply. Such a simple cycle, like the waves in the ocean, assumes that the animals' populations build up until they consume all of the food, then die off and rebuild again after the food supply has recovered. Recent studies of lemming populations at Point Barrow, reported by Thompson (1955), suggest a cycle almost that simple. He reports that almost all vegetation was consumed at the peak of the three to four-year cycle. Although Thompson concluded that the cycle was due to a combination of predation and food and cover depletion, it is quite apparent that some cycle would have resulted even if the predators were absent, as most of those lemmings taken by predators were already doomed to starvation. An indication that rabbits may also respond to such a simple starvation cycle is found in reports that they sometimes severely damage their winter food plants during peak years (Bailey, 1946; Grange, 1949; and Cowan, 1950). Howev r, such examples of direct starvation limiting herbivore populations are relatively uncommon in nature, since (in my opinion) malnutrition, not starvation, usually sets the p pulation limits. Most animals resort to so-called "stuffing foods" (Leopold, 1933) rather than succumb to direct starvation. Actually, the rabbits mentioned above which were damaging their ranges, probably were consuming foods that were well below their minimum nutritional requirements. Most living things have a reproductive capacity that keeps their population at environmental capacity, and the most important single component of that environment s food. This is borne out by Lack (1954a), who concludes that many bird species are "limited in numbers by their food supply." Starker Leopold (1955) gives further support to this conclusion when he states that food is the "all-important" regulator of deer numbers.