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This forum examines whether scholars’ access to networks in the international studies profession is gendered and if so, the consequences of those networks for personal and professional success. Academic networks that encompass both professional and personal connections have been proposed as one solution to chilly climate issues because they provide a dual function of enhancing scholarly productivity and inclusion in the profession. The articles in the forum consider both professional (e.g., citation) and personal (e.g., mentorship, friendship) networks, as well as traditional (e.g., invited talks) and nontraditional (e.g., social media) networks. The authors show that biases that arise through the gendered nature of academic networks can be mitigated through social media, mentoring, and friendship networks. However, we must also be cognizant of other factors that create barriers for women in the profession (e.g., university prestige, parenthood, COVID-19).

Marginalized populations experience disproportionate rates of preterm birth and early term birth. Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has been reported to reduce length of gestation, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. In the present study, we characterized the molecular signatures of prenatal PFAS exposure and gestational age at birth outcomes in the newborn dried blood spot metabolome among 267 African American dyads in Atlanta, Georgia between 2016 and 2020. Pregnant people with higher serum perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid concentrations had increased odds of an early birth. After false discovery rate correction, the effect of prenatal PFAS exposure on reduced length of gestation was associated with 8 metabolomic pathways and 52 metabolites in newborn dried blood spots, which suggested perturbed tissue neogenesis, neuroendocrine function, and redox homeostasis. These mechanisms explain how prenatal PFAS exposure gives rise to the leading cause of infant death in the United States.

Independents who lean toward a party constitute a plurality of Americans. Despite their reluctance to identify as partisans, scholars find that “leaners” look much like partisans with respect to their voting behavior, civic engagement, and policy preferences. Yet, existing literature does not consider the possibility that different factors lead Democrats and Republicans to opt for an independent label. We consider heterogeneity in what leads people to report that they are “leaners” and we identify important partisan differences. By introducing a novel survey measure administered on a large adult sample, we identify both the motivation for, and consequence of, identifying as a leaner. Our results reveal that modern-day Republican leaners are largely motivated by a dissatisfaction with their own party. They are ideologically more moderate and are subsequently less willing to support their party’s candidate. Democratic leaners, on the other hand, appear satisfied with their party’s ideology and candidates, but nevertheless value an independent label. Our work suggests that partisan identification is both expressive and politically contextual. Our study provides an important step in identifying distinct motivations and electoral consequences within this large and growing segment of Americans.

Expert news sources offer context and act as translators, communicating complex policy issues to the public. Therefore, these sources have implications for who, and what is elevated and legitimized by news coverage. This element considers patterns in expert sources, focusing on a particular area of expertise: politics. As a starting point, it conducts a content analysis tracking which types of political experts are most likely to be interviewed, using this analysis to explain patterns in expert sourcing. Building on the source data, it next conducts experiments and surveys of journalists to consider demand for expert sources. Finally, shifting the analysis to the supply of expert sources, it turns to a survey of faculty to track expert experiences with journalists. Jointly, the results suggest underlying patterns in expert sourcing is a tension between journalists' preferences, the time constraints of producing news, and the preferences of the experts themselves.

RATIONALE: Pneumonia is the leading cause of death in children worldwide. Identifying and appropriately managing severe pneumonia in a timely manner improves outcomes. Little is known about the readiness of healthcare facilities to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in low-resource settings. OBJECTIVES: As part of the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial, we sought to identify healthcare facilities that were adequately resourced to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in Jalapa, Guatemala (J-GUA); Puno, Peru (P-PER); Kayonza, Rwanda (K-RWA); and Tamil Nadu, India (T-IND). We conducted a facility-based survey of available infrastructure, staff, equipment, and medical consumables. Facilities were georeferenced and a road network analysis was performed. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Of the 350 healthcare facilities surveyed, 13% had adequate resources to manage severe pneumonia, 37% had pulse oximeters, and 44% had supplemental oxygen. Mean (±SD) travel time to an adequately-resourced facility was 41±19 minutes in J-GUA, 99±64 minutes in P-PER, 40±19 minutes in K-RWA, and 31±19 minutes in T-IND. Expanding pulse oximetry coverage to all facilities reduced travel time by 44% in J-GUA, 29% in P-PER, 29% in K-RWA, and 11% in T-IND (all p

We developed and applied a method for measuring selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) [i.e, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)] in dust collected from pregnant African Americans (AAs) in Atlanta. Our method used a liquid-liquid extraction followed by cleanup using a Florisil solid phase extraction car-tridge. We analyzed the extracts using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with electron impact ionization and multiple reaction monitoring. Quantification was achieved using isotope dilution calibration. Limits of quantification were ranged from 0.10-2.50 ng/g dust. NIST standard reference material measurements demonstrated the robustness of our method. Our ac-curacies ranged from 82-108%, relative standard deviations ranged from 2-16%, and extraction recoveries ranged from 76-102%. We measured POPs in dust collected from 34 homes of pregnant AAs participating in the Atlanta AA birth cohort study who were enrolled from 2016-2019. Concentrations of POPs were detected in all samples with the frequencies of detection ranging from 8-100%. Concentrations of PBDE congeners 99 and 47, p,p’-DDT, and PCB153 were detected at some of the highest concentrations with geometric means of 1270, 730, 63.4 and 240 ng/g, re-spectively. The ratio of DDT/DDE was quite large (~2.7) indicating that p,p’-DDT remains intact in homes for long periods of time. These data demonstrate that care should be taken to remediate POPs in indoor dust, especially in vulnerable, disparate segments of the population.

Does interpersonal political communication improve the quality of individual decision making? While deliberative theorists offer reasons for hope, experimental researchers have demonstrated that biased messages can travel via interpersonal social networks. We argue that the value of interpersonal political communication depends on the motivations of the people involved, which can be shifted by different contexts. Using small-group experiments that randomly assign participants' motivations to seek or share information with others as well as their motivations for evaluating the information they receive, we demonstrate the importance of accounting for motivations in communication. We find that when individuals with more extreme preferences are motivated to acquire and share information, collective civic capacity is diminished. But if we can stimulate the exchange of information among individuals with stronger prosocial motivations, such communication can enhance collective civic capacity. We also provide advice for other researchers about conducting similar group-based experiments to study political communication.

Human and animal exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) has been associated with adverse developmental and reproductive effects. The molecular mechanisms by which BPA exposure exerts its effects are not well-understood, even less known about its analogues bisphenol F (BPF). To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted an untargeted metabolome-wide association study (MWAS) to identify metabolic perturbations associated with BPA/BPF exposures in a pregnant African American cohort.From a subset of study participants enrolled in the Atlanta African American Maternal-Child cohort, we collected both urine samples, for targeted exposure assessment of BPA (N = 230) and BPF (N = 48), and serum samples, for high-resolution metabolomics (HRM) profiling (N = 230), during early pregnancy (8-14 weeks' gestation). Using an established untargeted HRM workflow consisting of MWAS modeling, pathway enrichment analysis, and chemical annotation and confirmation, we investigated the potential metabolic pathways and features associated with BPA/BPF exposures.The geometric mean creatinine-adjusted concentrations of urinary BPA and BPF were 0.85 ± 2.58 and 0.70 ± 4.71 µg/g creatinine, respectively. After false positive discovery rate correction at 20 % level, 264 and 733 unique metabolic features were significantly associated with urinary BPA and BPF concentrations, representing 10 and 12 metabolic pathways, respectively. Three metabolic pathways, including steroid hormones biosynthesis, lysine and lipoate metabolism, were significantly associated with both BPA and BPF exposure. Using chemical standards, we have confirmed the chemical identity of 16 metabolites significantly associated with BPA or BPF exposure.Our findings support that exposure to BPA and BPF in pregnant women is associated with the perturbation of aromatic amino acid metabolism, xenobiotics metabolism, steroid biosynthesis, and other amino acid metabolism closely linked to stress responses, inflammation, neural development, reproduction, and weight regulation.

INTRODUCTION: Organophosphate (OP) insecticides, including chlorpyrifos, have been linked with numerous harmful health effects on maternal and child health. Limited data are available on the biological mechanisms and endogenous pathways underlying the toxicity of chlorpyrifos exposures on pregnancy and birth outcomes. In this study, we measured a urinary chlorpyrifos metabolite and used high-resolution metabolomics (HRM) to identify biological perturbations associated with chlorpyrifos exposure among pregnant women in Thailand, who are disparately exposed to high levels of OP insecticides. METHODS: This study included 50 participants from the Study of Asian Women and their Offspring’s Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE). We used liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry to conduct metabolic profiling on first trimester serum samples collected from participants to evaluate metabolic perturbations in relation to chlorpyrifos exposures. We measured 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), a specific metabolite of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl, in first trimester urine samples to assess the levels of exposures. Following an untargeted metabolome-wide association study workflow, we used generalized linear models, pathway enrichment analyses, and chemical annotation to identify significant metabolites and pathways associated with urinary TCPy levels. RESULTS: In the 50 SAWASDEE participants, the median urinary TCPy level was 4.36 μg TCPy/g creatinine. In total, 691 unique metabolic features were found significantly associated with TCPy levels (p < 0.05) after controlling for confounding factors. Pathway analysis of metabolic features associated with TCPy indicated perturbations in 24 metabolic pathways, most closely linked to the production of reactive oxygen species and cellular damage. These pathways include tryptophan metabolism, fatty acid oxidation and peroxisome metabolism, cytochromes P450 metabolism, glutathione metabolism, and vitamin B3 metabolism. We confirmed the chemical identities of 25 metabolites associated with TCPy levels, including glutathione, cystine, arachidic acid, itaconate, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. DISCUSSION: The metabolic perturbations associated with TCPy levels were related to oxidative stress, cellular damage and repair, and systemic inflammation, which could ultimately contribute to health outcomes, including neurodevelopmental deficits in the child. These findings support the future development of sensitive biomarkers to investigate the metabolic underpinnings related to pesticide exposure during pregnancy and to understand its link to adverse outcomes in children.

Co-exposure to tobacco and marijuana has become common in areas where recreational marijuana use is legal. To assist in the determination of the combined health risks of this co-exposure, an analytical method capable of simultaneously measuring tobacco and marijuana metabolites is needed to reduce laboratory costs and the required sample volume. So far, no such analytical method exists. Thus, we developed and validated a method to simultaneously quantify urinary levels of trans-3'-hydroxycotinine (3OH-COT), cotinine (COT), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (COOH-THC) to assess co-exposure to tobacco and marijuana. Urine (200 µL) was spiked with labelled internal standards and enzymatically hydrolyzed to liberate the conjugated analytes before extraction using solid-supported liquid-liquid extraction (SLE) with ethyl acetate serving as an eluent. The target analytes were separated on a C18 (4.6 × 100 mm, 5 μm) analytical column with a gradient mobile phase elution and analyzed using tandem mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring of target ion transitions. Positive electrospray ionization (ESI) was used for 3OH-COT and COT, while negative ESI was used for COOH-THC. The total run time was 13 min. The extraction recoveries were 18.4-23.9 % (3OH-COT), 65.1-96.8 % (COT), and 80.6-95.4 % (COOH-THC). The method limits of quantification were 5.0 ng/mL (3OH-COT) and 2.5 ng/mL (COT and COOH-THC). The method showed good accuracy (82.5-98.5 %) and precision (1.22-6.21 % within-day precision and 1.42-6.26 % between-day precision). The target analytes were stable for at least 144 h inside the autosampler (10 °C). The analyses of reference materials and 146 urine samples demonstrated good method performance. The use of a 96-well plate for preparation makes the method useful for the analysis of large numbers of samples.

Upholstered furniture is often manufactured with polyurethane foam (PUF) containing flame retardants (FRs) to prevent the risk of a fire and/or to meet flammability regulations, however, exposure to certain FRs and other chemicals have been linked to adverse health effects. This study developed a new methodology for evaluating volatile organic compound (VOC) and FR exposures to users of upholstered furniture by simulating use of a chair in a controlled exposure chamber and assessing the health significance of measured chemical exposure. Chairs with different fire‐resistant technologies were evaluated for VOC and FR exposures via inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact exposure routes. Data show that VOC exposure levels are lower than threshold levels defined by the US and global indoor air criteria. Brominated FRs were not detected from the studied chairs. The organophosphate FRs added to PUF were released into the surrounding air (0.4 ng/m3) and as dust (16 ng/m2). Exposure modeling showed that adults are exposed to FRs released from upholstered furniture mostly by dermal contact and children are exposed via dermal and ingestion exposure. Children are most susceptible to FR exposure/dose (2 times higher average daily dose than adults) due to their frequent hand to mouth contact.

Mycotoxin contamination in animal milk is an emerging concern around the globe. Here we developed and validated an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-selected reaction monitoring (UHPLC/MS-SRM) method to quantify low concentrations of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxins (OTs) in routinely consumed animal milk samples collected from southern India. Stable isotope dilution methodology was applied to quantify AFB(1), AFB(2), AFG(1), AFG(2), AFM(1), AFM(2) and OTA, OTB in n = 38 different milk samples, using 1 mL of milk. Bioanalytical parameters including method accuracy, precision, recovery, regression analysis and stability were assessed. Dynamic ranges for quantification were between 15.6–1000 pg/mL for AFB(1), AFB(2), AFG(1), and OTA; 7.8–500 pg/mL for AFM(1), AFM(2) and OTB; 78.6–5000 pg/mL for AFG(2). Method accuracy ranged between 80–120%, with ± 15% precision. Recoveries for spiked standards were > 88% in water and 75% in milk, with limits of quantification (LOQ) ranging between 31.3 pg/mL for AFB(1), AFB(2), AFG(1) and OTA, 15.6 pg/mL for AFM(1), AFM(2) and OTB and 156 pg/mL for AFG(2). R(2) values for regression analyses ranged between 0.9991–0.9999. AFB(2) [mean: 38 pg/mL (0.038 µg/kg)] was quantified in goat milk, AFM(1) was quantified in cow, goat, pasteurized milk [mean: 331 pg/mL (0.331 µg/kg), 406 pg/mL (0.406 µg/kg), 164 pg/mL (0.164 µg/kg)]. Additionally, 90% of cow, goat and pasteurized milk samples were above European Union (EU) limits of 50 pg/mL (0.05 µg/kg) and 40% of cow and goat milk samples were above the Food Safety Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) limit of 500 pg/mL (0.5 µg/kg). AFM(2) was also quantified in cow, goat, and pasteurized milk samples [mean: 249 pg/mL (0.249 µg/kg), 375 pg/mL (0.375 µg/kg), 81 pg/mL (0.081 µg/kg)]. Our dynamic ranges for quantification are lower than other published methods, with need for a smaller volume of milk. This validated method can be applied for routine quantification of mycotoxins in milk. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1007/s13197-021-04986-w).

BackgroundPopulation growth which has resulted in a need for increased crop yields to sustain food security, in addition to the effects of climate change, have led to the widespread use of chemical pesticides. The indiscriminate use of pesticides has in turn led to contamination of the environment, food commodities and bioaccumulation in human tissues, particularly in agrarian regions of India including the northern state of Haryana.MethodsWe conducted a pilot screening study to investigate the presence of organochlorine, organophosphate, and pyrethroid pesticides in breastmilk samples (n = 75) from Haryana, India. Pesticide analyses were conducted using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for OC and OP pesticides and GC-electron capture detector for pyrethroids. The study was complemented by a qualitative evaluation of maternal and community perceptions, knowledge, attitudes and practices associated with pesticide use and risk of exposure (n = 30 in-depth interviews;n = 9 focus group discussions).ResultsAnalysis of breastmilk showed the presence ofp,p’-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) andp,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) in 4% (range: Our qualitative findings showed that community members commonly held perceptions of pesticides as medicines and poison but acknowledged their widespread use to ensure crop yields. Given the gendered engagement in farming in this setting, lactating women in study communities do not directly handle chemical pesticides, thus lowering risk of inhalation and dermal exposure.ConclusionsIn our small sample, breastmilk pesticide concentrations were low and did not pose a risk to infants. Based on the persistent nature of many organic pollutants and reported widespread use, we recommend more comprehensive and longitudinal investigation of upstream pesticide contamination in the food supply and exposures among mothers and children.Trial registrationCTRI/2017/01/007636, Date Registered: 06/01/2017.CTRI website:http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pdf_generate.php?trialid=17249&EncHid=&modid=&compid=%27,%2717249det%27

The topic of pederasty in “The Sisters” has attracted extensive commentary. In this discussion, the boy’s confusion, growing up at the crux of two views of masculinity, has not been explored. Moreover, Father Flynn’s nostalgic view of boyhood, and his dependency on the company of the boy, also warrants exploration. Furthermore, little has been made of the boy’s antagonistic relationship with Father Flynn’s sisters, as there is evidence in the story that the boy is considered corruptive. It is my contention that pederasty is not the larger issue, as in another context, this could be contested. Rather, the boundary between the boy and adults is constructed across two opposing ideals of masculinity, obliterating any possibility of contestation. Subsequently, sentient and reflexive aspects of the boy’s characterization deviate from how children are viewed by adult characters in Dubliners.

We developed a robust analytical method for quantification of malondialdehyde (MDA) in urine and serum samples using dansylhydrazine (DH) as a derivatizing reagent. The derivatization procedure was partially carried out using an autosampler injection program to minimize errors associated with the low-volume addition of reagents and was optimized to yield a stable hydrazone derivative of MDA and its labeled d2-MDA analogue. The target MDA-DH derivatives were separated on an Agilent Zorbax Eclipse Plus Phenyl-Hexyl (3.0 × 100 mm, 3.5 μm) column. The mass-to-charge ratios of the target derivatives [(M+H)+ of 302 and 304 for MDA-DH and d2-MDA-DH, respectively] were analyzed in single ion monitoring mode using a single quadrupole mass spectrometer operated under positive electrospray ionization. The method limits of quantification were 5.63 nM (or 0.405 ng/mL) for urine analysis and 5.68 nM (or 0.409 ng/mL) for serum analysis. The quantification range for urine analysis was 5.63–500 nM (0.405–36.0 ng/mL) while the quantification range for serum analysis was 5.68–341 nM (0.409–24.6 ng/mL). The method showed good relative recoveries (98–103%), good accuracies (92–98%), and acceptable precisions (relative standard deviations 1.8–7.3% for inter-day precision; 1.8–6.1% for intra-day precision) as observed from the repeat analysis of quality control samples prepared at different concentrations. The method was used to measure MDA in individual urine samples (n = 287) and de-identified archived serum samples (n = 22) to assess the overall performance of the method. The results demonstrated that our method is capable of measuring urinary and serum levels of MDA, allowing its future application in epidemiologic investigations.

There is little doubt that increasing polarization over the last decade has transformed the American political landscape. In The Other Divide, Yanna Krupnikov and John Barry Ryan challenge the nature and extent of that polarization. They find that more than party, Americans are divided by involvement in politics. On one side is a group of Americans who are deeply involved in politics and very expressive about their political views; on the other side is a group much less involved in day-to-day political outcomes. While scholars and journalists have assumed that those who are most vocal about their political views are representative of America at large, they are in fact a relatively small group whose voices are amplified by the media. By considering the political differences between the deeply involved and the rest of the American public, Krupnikov and Ryan present a broader picture of the American electorate than the one that often appears in the news.

Peer Assisted Leaning (PAL) programmes have been shown to enhance learner confidence and have an overall positive effect on learner comprehension, particularly in subjects traditionally perceived as difficult. This research describes the findings of a three-cycle Action Research study into the perceived benefits of implementing such a programme for mature students enrolled on a computer science programming module on an Access Foundation Programme in an Irish University. The findings from this study suggest that peer learning programmes offer students a valued support structure that aids transition and acculturation into tertiary education whilst simultaneously improving their subject-matter comprehension and confidence. An evidence-based model of PAL implementation for mature students was subsequently developed, underpinned by the associated pedagogic theory and the findings of the study. Our model promotes a student-focused peer educational enhancement framework that is transferable into the wider higher education setting.

For any brewing and distilling establishment, the supply and quality of processing inputs is a major determinant in its production output. Accessibility and availability of brewing and distilling inputs drives productivity and quality of products. The Irish brewing and distilling sector have shown increased sales and production output, with a growth rate of 4% between 2014 and 2019. The brewing industry in the republic of Ireland has seen a 22% increase in the number of micro-breweries since 2014, and its total output now stands at 8.3 m hectolitres. The distilling industry witnessed an increase from four to thirty-eight in the number of distilleries between 2010 and 2020 with a local and global sales at 2.4 and 20 million nine litre cases, respectively. As a result of the continued growth of the Irish brewing and distilling sector, demand for different processing inputs has increased proportionately. For a sustainable production process, there is need for a steady supply of the right quantity and quality of the major inputs for brewing and distilling. Sustainable growth of the sector requires establishment of a strong base of processing inputs availability and their effective utilisation to minimise environmental impacts. This review, therefore, looks at the current state of the major processing inputs for brewing and distilling in Ireland, as well as their general characteristics and requirements.

The present study investigated the interaction effects (additive, synergistic, and antagonistic) of different groups of spices, their constituent phenolic compounds, and synthetic antioxidants on the total phenol (TP) content and antioxidant activity, as measured by the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the mixtures. The results showed that there was an additive effect in all the groups studied, except for the group containing turmeric or curcumin. The groups containing turmeric or curcumin showed a moderate synergistic effect. Among the groups of spices, the highest summated TP (50.6 mg GAE/mL) and FRAP (106.2 mg Trolox/mL) values were observed in the group containing clove, cinnamon, pimento, rosemary, oregano, and cardamom. In the case of the groups of pure phenolics, the highest summated TP (364.96 mg GAE/mL) and FRAP (1124.25 mg Trolox/mL) values were observed in the group containing eugenol, acetyl eugenol, caffeic acid, and protocatechuic acid. The summated and combined TP and FRAP values of the samples correlated highly with the correlation coefficients (r2) of 0.976 and 0.988, respectively, inferring an additive nature of the interaction effect in most of the groups studied. The interactions of phenolics in mixtures are very complex, being affected by a number of factors, and requires more investigations. The current study will add considerable knowledge to the existing literature to understand the diversity and mechanisms of interactions.

African Americans (AAs) experience high rates of adverse pregnancy outcomes relative to Whites. Differential in utero exposure to environmental chemicals and psychosocial stressors may explain some of the observed health disparities, as exposures to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and experiences of discrimination have been linked to adverse birth outcomes. Few studies have examined chemicals and non-chemical stressors together as an exposure mixture, which may better reflect real-life exposure patterns. Here, we adapted methods designed for the analysis of exposure mixtures to examine joint effects of PFAS and psychosocial stress on birth outcomes among AAs.348 participants from the Atlanta African American Maternal-Child cohort were included in this study. Four PFAS were measured in first trimester serum samples. Self-report questionnaires were administered during the first trimester and were used to assess psychosocial stress (perceived stress, depression, anxiety, gendered racial stress). Quantile g-computation and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were used to estimate the joint effects between PFAS and psychosocial stressors on gestational age at delivery and birthweight for gestational age z-scores. All models were adjusted for maternal education, maternal age, parity, and any alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use.Our analytic sample included a socioeconomically diverse group of pregnant women, with 79 % receiving public health insurance. In quantile g-computation models, a simultaneous one-quartile increase in all PFAS, perceived stress, depression, anxiety, and gendered racial stress was associated with a reduction in birthweight z-scores (mean %change per quartile increase = -0.24, 95 % confidence interval = -0.43, -0.06). BKMR similarly showed that increasing all exposures in the mixture was associated with a modest decrease in birthweight z-scores, but not a reduced length of gestation.Using methods designed for analyzing exposure mixtures, we found that a simultaneous increase in in utero PFAS and psychosocial stressors was associated with reduced birthweight for gestational age z-scores.

The IMPACT project at TU Dublin has been informed in part by the outcomes of the Co-CREATE project in 2019-20. Co-CREATE was a Team Teaching Fellowship project to support and underpin the building of a quality curriculum framework for the new technological university. A number of IMPACT projects (for example, NorthStar) have continued the work started within the Co-CREATE project to make it sustainable and embedded within the university. We present findings from one element of the Co-CREATE project which has informed a range of initiatives in IMPACT. This is the review of literature and practice undertaken to underpin the Co-CREATE project. The review addresses student voice and agency in curriculum design, enhancing sustainability in curriculum design, and identifies the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in the development of new programmes and provision. Curriculum in higher education has been discussed in educational literature as a fluid and contested concept. It relates to product, often described as content and syllabus, but also process, socially and politically embedded with the potential for change in positive or less positive directions. We present our findings and insights, and the recommendations we have made to stakeholders in our institution. We reflect on the purposes of higher education in the 21st century, and consider the UN Sustainable Development Goals and how they relate to TU Dublin’s mission and vision. We consider the place of graduate attributes, innovation, global citizenship and the impact of new technologies. We report on the development of curriculum frameworks and design at other technological universities, and how our experiences might be more diverse than those of traditional universities. We consider the impact of “connected” approaches to curriculum in research-intensive universities, and how these might be translated to the technological university context. We conclude with recommendations arising from the review of literature and practice which underpinned further work in Co-CREATE, and which may also be of value to others commencing this kind of work or reviewing curricula.

We developed and applied a method for measuring selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (i.e., polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)) in dust collected from pregnant African Americans (AAs) in Atlanta using isotope dilution gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Limits of quantification were ranged from 0.10 to 2.50 ng/g dust. NIST standard reference material measurements demonstrated the robustness of our method. Our accuracies ranged from 82 to 108%, relative standard deviations ranged from 2 to 16%, and extraction recoveries ranged from 76 to 102%. We measured POPs in dust collected from 34 homes of pregnant AAs participating in the Atlanta AA birth cohort study who were enrolled from 2016 to 2019. Concentrations of POPs were detected in all samples with the frequencies of detection ranging from 8 to 100%. Concentrations of PBDE congeners 99 and 47, p,p’-DDT, and PCB153 were detected at some of the highest concentrations with geometric means of 1270, 730, 63.4 and 240 ng/g, respectively. The ratio of DDT/DDE was quite large (~2.7) indicating that p,p’-DDT remains intact in homes for long periods of time. These data demonstrate that care should be taken to remediate POPs in indoor dust, especially in vulnerable, disparate segments of the population.

SummaryBackgroundCountries continue to debate the need for decontamination of cold-chain food packaging to reduce possible SARS-CoV-2 fomite transmission among workers. While laboratory-based studies demonstrate persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces, the likelihood of fomite-mediated transmission under real-life conditions is uncertain.MethodsUsing a quantitative risk assessment model, we simulated in a frozen food packaging facility 1) SARS-CoV-2 fomite-mediated infection risks following worker exposure to contaminated plastic packaging; and 2) reductions in these risks attributed to masking, handwashing, and vaccination.FindingsIn a representative facility with no specific interventions, SARS-CoV-2 infection risk to a susceptible worker from contact with contaminated packaging was 2·8 × 10−3per 1h-period (95%CI: 6·9 × 10−6, 2·4 × 10−2). Implementation of standard infection control measures, handwashing and masks (9·4 × 10−6risk per 1h-period, 95%CI: 2·3 × 10−8, 8·1 × 10−5), substantially reduced risk (99·7%). Vaccination of the susceptible worker (two doses Pfizer/Moderna, vaccine effectiveness: 86-99%) combined with handwashing and masking reduced risk to less than 1·0 × 10−6. Simulating increased infectiousness/transmissibility of new variants (2-, 10-fold viral shedding) among a fully vaccinated workforce, handwashing and masks continued to mitigate risk (2·0 × 10−6-1·1 × 10−5risk per 1h-period). Decontamination of packaging in addition to these interventions reduced infection risks to below the 1·0 × 10−6risk threshold.InterpretationFomite-mediated SARS-CoV-2 infection risks were very low under cold-chain conditions. Handwashing and masking provide significant protection to workers, especially when paired with vaccination.FundingU.S. Department of Agriculture

Background Household air pollution adversely affects human health and the environment, yet more than 40% of the world still depends on solid cooking fuels. The House Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) randomized controlled trial is assessing the health effects of a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stove and 18-month supply of free fuel in 3,200 households in rural Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. Aims We conducted formative research in Guatemala to create visual messages that support the sustained, exclusive use of LPG in HAPIN intervention households. Method We conducted ethnographic research, including direct observation ( n = 36), in-depth ( n = 18), and semistructured ( n = 6) interviews, and 24 focus group discussions ( n = 96) to understand participants’ experience with LPG. Sixty participants were selected from a pilot study of LPG stove and 2-months of free fuel to assess the acceptability and use of LPG. Emergent themes were used to create visual messages based on observations and interviews in 40 households; messages were tested and revised in focus group discussions with 20 households. Results We identified 50 codes related to household air pollution and stoves; these were reduced into 24 themes relevant to LPG stoves, prioritizing 12 for calendars. Messages addressed fear and reluctance to use LPG; preference of wood stoves for cooking traditional foods; sustainability and accessibility of fuel; association between health outcomes and household air pollution; and the need for inspirational and aspirational messages. Discussion We created a flip chart and calendar illustrating themes to promote exclusive LPG use in HAPIN intervention households.

BACKGROUND: Phthalates have been linked with numerous harmful health effects. Limited data are available on the molecular mechanism underlying phthalate toxicity on human health. In this study, we measured urinary phthalate metabolites and used high-resolution metabolomics (HRM) to identify biological perturbations associated with phthalate exposures among pregnant African American (AA) women, who are disproportionately exposed to high phthalates levels. METHODS: We used untargeted HRM profiling to characterize serum samples collected during early (8-14 weeks gestation) and late (24-30 weeks gestation) pregnancy from 73 participants from the Atlanta AA Maternal-Child cohort. We measured eight urinary phthalate metabolites in early and late pregnancy, including Monoethyl phthalate (MEP), Mono(2-ethlyhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), and Mono (2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), to assess maternal exposures to phthalates. Metabolite and metabolic pathway perturbation were evaluated using an untargeted HRM workflow. RESULTS: Geometric mean creatinine-adjusted levels of urinary MEP, MEHP, and MEHHP were 67.3, 1.4, and 4.1 μg/g creatinine, respectively, with MEP and MEHP higher than the mean levels of non-Hispanic blacks in the general US population (2015-2016). There were 73 and 1,435 metabolic features significantly associated with at least one phthalate metabolite during early and late pregnancy (p

We developed a robust analytical method for quantification of malondialdehyde (MDA) in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) via derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). The target MDA-DNPH hydrazone was separated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography using two reversed-phase analytical columns (C18 and phenyl-hexyl) inter-connected via a two-position, six-port switching valve to a single-quadrupole mass spectrometer. The target derivative was analyzed under positive electrospray ionization using single ion monitoring mode (m/z = 235 for the target derivative, and m/z = 237 for its labeled isotopic analog). This pseudo two-dimensional chromatographic separation provided optimum separation conditions for the target derivative resulting in the limit of detection of 0.58 nM in EBC sample (or 36.2 pmol on-column amount), which is comparable to those reported previously using different techniques, including tandem mass spectrometry. Based on the calibration solutions, the method had a linear quantification range of 1.0–200 nM (r2 = 0.998). The method showed good relative recoveries (92.2–102.0%) and acceptable precisions (3.6–12.2% for inter-day precision, and 4.3–12.4% for intra-day precision for two quality control levels, prepared from 5 nM and 25 nM solutions). The derivative was found to be stable at room temperature for 48 h or during analysis. The method was used to analyze 205 exhaled breath condensate samples collected from individuals from a healthy population of student athletes. MDA was detected in approximately 95% of these samples, with concentrations ranging from 1.16 to 149.63 nM. The median concentration was 6.82 nM, (IQR 4.08–9.88). These data demonstrate that our method can be successfully used to measure MDA in population studies.

Background Prenatal exposure to pesticides has been linked to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. Gaps exist in the current literature about the timing and magnitude of exposures that result in these adverse outcomes. Objective The Study of Asian Women and their Offspring’s Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE) cohort was established to investigate the impact of prenatal exposure to pesticides on early indicators of cognitive and motor skills, inhibitory control, emotion regulation, and memory that have been found to be important in the development of subsequent neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental diseases. The overarching goal is to find earlier predictors of potential adverse neurologic outcomes in order to enable earlier interventions that could result in better outcome prognoses. Methods Recruitment of this prospective, longitudinal birth cohort began in July 2017 and was completed in June 2019 in Chom Thong and Fang, 2 farming districts in Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand. Follow-up of the study participants is ongoing. During pregnancy, 7 questionnaires were administered. Time-resolved biospecimen samples were collected monthly (for urine) and during each trimester (for blood) during antenatal care visits. Medical records were abstracted. Infants were administered the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) test at 1 month of age. A total of 322 mother-child pairs completed the NNNS test. All children will be followed until 3 years of age and undergo a series of neurodevelopmental tests. We will complete several additional exposure related analyses. Results A total of 1298 women were screened, and of those, 394 (30.35%) women were enrolled. The mean gestational age at enrollment was 9.9 weeks (SD 2.6). Differences in literacy were observed between Chom Thong and Fang participants. In Fang, about 54 of 105 (51.4%) participants reported being able to read in Thai compared to about 206 of 217 (94.9%) participants in Chom Thong. The percentages were comparable for reporting to be able to write in Thai. Conclusions This longitudinal birth cohort study will inform risk assessment standards for pregnant women in Thailand and other countries. Building awareness of how insecticide exposure during specific windows of pregnancy affects the neurodevelopmental trajectories of children in developing countries is a specific need recognized by the World Health Organization. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/31696

BACKGROUND Prenatal exposure to pesticides has been linked to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. Gaps exist in the current literature about the timing and magnitude of exposures that result in these adverse outcomes. OBJECTIVE The Study of Asian Women and their Offspring’s Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE) cohort was established to investigate the impact of prenatal exposure to pesticides on early indicators of cognitive and motor skills, inhibitory control, emotion regulation, and memory that have been found to be important in the development of subsequent neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental diseases. The overarching goal is to find earlier predictors of potential adverse neurologic outcomes in order to enable earlier interventions that could result in better outcome prognoses. METHODS Recruitment of this prospective, longitudinal birth cohort began in July 2017 and was completed in June 2019 in Chom Thong and Fang, 2 farming districts in Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand. Follow-up of the study participants is ongoing. During pregnancy, 7 questionnaires were administered. Time-resolved biospecimen samples were collected monthly (for urine) and during each trimester (for blood) during antenatal care visits. Medical records were abstracted. Infants were administered the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) test at 1 month of age. A total of 322 mother-child pairs completed the NNNS test. All children will be followed until 3 years of age and undergo a series of neurodevelopmental tests. We will complete several additional exposure related analyses. RESULTS A total of 1298 women were screened, and of those, 394 (30.35%) women were enrolled. The mean gestational age at enrollment was 9.9 weeks (SD 2.6). Differences in literacy were observed between Chom Thong and Fang participants. In Fang, about 54 of 105 (51.4%) participants reported being able to read in Thai compared to about 206 of 217 (94.9%) participants in Chom Thong. The percentages were comparable for reporting to be able to write in Thai. CONCLUSIONS This longitudinal birth cohort study will inform risk assessment standards for pregnant women in Thailand and other countries. Building awareness of how insecticide exposure during specific windows of pregnancy affects the neurodevelopmental trajectories of children in developing countries is a specific need recognized by the World Health Organization. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT DERR1-10.2196/31696

Background Measurements of urinary dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites are often used to characterize exposures to organophosphate (OP) insecticides; however, some challenges to using urinary DAP metabolites as an exposure measure exist. OP insecticides have short biological half-lives with measurement in a single urine sample typically only reflecting recent exposure within the last few days. Because of the field staff and participant burden of longitudinal sample collection and the high cost of multiple measurements, typically only one or two urine samples have been used to evaluate OP insecticide exposure during pregnancy, which is unlikely to capture an accurate picture of prenatal exposure. Methods We recruited pregnant farmworker women in Chom Thong and Fang, two districts of Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand (N = 330) into the Study of Asian Women and their Offspring’s Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE) from 2017 to 2019. We collected up to 6 serial urine samples per participant during gestation and composited the samples to represent early, mid, and late pregnancy. We measured concentrations of urinary DAP metabolites in the composited urine samples and evaluated the within- and between-participant variability of these levels. We also investigated predictors of OP insecticide exposure. Results DAP metabolite concentrations in serial composite samples were weakly to moderately correlated. Spearman correlations indicated that composite urine samples were more highly correlated in Fang participants than in Chom Thong participants. The within-person variances (0.064–0.65) exceeded the between-person variances for DETP, DEP, ∑DEAP, DMP, DMTP, ∑DMAP, ∑DAP. The intraclass correlations (ICCs) for the volume-based individual metabolite levels (ng/mL) ranged from 0.10 to 0.66. For ∑DEAP, ∑DMAP, and ∑DAP the ICCs were, 0.47, 0.17, 0.45 respectively. We observed significant differences between participants from Fang compared to those from Chom Thong both in demographic and exposure characteristics. Spearman correlations of composite samples from Fang participants ranged from 0.55 to 0.66 for the ∑DEAP metabolite concentrations in Fang indicating moderate correlation between pregnancy periods. The ICCs were higher for samples from Fang participants, which drove the overall ICCs. Conclusions Collecting multiple (∼6) urine samples during pregnancy rather than just 1 or 2 improved our ability to accurately assess exposure during the prenatal period. By compositing the samples, we were able to still obtain trimester-specific information on exposure while keeping the analytic costs and laboratory burden low. This analysis also helped to inform how to best conduct future analyses within the SAWASDEE study. We observed two different exposure profiles in participants in which the concentrations and variability in data were highly linked to the residential location of the participants.

The SARS-CoV-2 global pandemic poses significant health risks to workers who are essential to maintaining the food supply chain. Using a quantitative risk assessment model, this study characterized the impact of risk reduction strategies for controlling SARS-CoV-2 transmission (droplet, aerosol, fomite-mediated) among front-line workers in a representative enclosed food manufacturing facility. We simulated: 1) individual and cumulative SARS-CoV-2 infection risks from close contact (droplet and aerosols at 1-3m), aerosol, and fomite-mediated exposures to a susceptible worker following exposure to an infected worker during an 8h-shift; and 2) the relative reduction in SARS-CoV-2 infection risk attributed to infection control interventions (physical distancing, mask use, ventilation, surface disinfection, hand hygiene). Without mitigation measures, the SARS-CoV-2 infection risk was largest for close contact (droplet and aerosol) at 1m (0.96, 95%CI: 0.67–1.0). In comparison, risk associated with fomite (0.26, 95%CI: 0.10–0.56) or aerosol exposure alone (0.05, 95%CI: 0.01–0.13) at 1m distance was substantially lower (73-95%). At 1m, droplet transmission predominated over aerosol and fomite-mediated transmission, however, this changed by 3m, with aerosols comprising the majority of the exposure dose. Increasing physical distancing reduced risk by 84% (1 to 2m) and 91% (1 to 3m). Universal mask use reduced infection risk by 52-88%, depending on mask type. Increasing ventilation (from 0.1 to 2-8 air changes/hour) resulted in risk reductions of 14-54% (1m) and 55-85% (2m). Combining these strategies, together with handwashing and surface disinfection, resulted in Significance StatementUsing mathematical modeling, we find that workers in enclosed food manufacturing facilities are at higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection from close contact transmission (exposure to large droplets and small aerosol particles) than fomite transmission. Thus, strategies protecting workers should prioritize close contact transmission pathways, such as physical distancing, universal mask use, and room air changes, with surface disinfection (reducing fomite transmission) and handwashing of secondary importance. Our work supports current international (EU-OSHA), domestic (FDA, OSHA), and food industry-standard guidance for managing COVID-19 transmission in essential workers in the food manufacturing sector. Although our model was designed for an indoor food manufacturing setting, it can be readily adapted to other indoor environments and infectious respiratory pathogens.

s Vitamin D has been linked to various physiological functions in pregnant women and their fetuses. Previous studies have suggested that some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) may alter serum vitamin D concentrations. However, no study has investigated the relationship between PFAS and vitamin D in pregnant women. This study aims to evaluate the associations of serum PFAS with serum total and free 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) during pregnancy in a cohort of African American women in Atlanta, GA. Blood samples from 442 participants were collected in early pregnancy (8–14 weeks of gestation) for PFAS and 25(OH)D measurements, and additional samples were collected in late pregnancy (24–30 weeks) for the second 25(OH)D measurements. We fit multivariable linear regressions and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regressions to estimate the associations of individual PFAS and their mixtures with 25(OH)D concentrations. We found mostly positive associations of total 25(OH)D with PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid), PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonic acid), PFDA (perfluorodecanoic acid), and NMeFOSAA (N-methyl perfluorooctane sulfonamido acetic acid), and negative associations with PFPeA (perfluoropentanoic acid). For free 25(OH)D, positive associations were observed with PFHxS, PFOS, PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), and PFDA, and a negative association with PFPeA among the women with male fetuses in the models using 25(OH)D measured in late pregnancy. In mixture models, a quartile increase in WQS index was associated with 2.88 ng/mL (95%CI 1.14–4.59) and 5.68 ng/mL (95%CI 3.31–8.04) increases in total 25(OH)D measured in the early and late pregnancy, respectively. NMeFOSAA, PFDA, and PFOS contributed the most to the overall effects among the eight PFAS. No association was found between free 25(OH)D and the PFAS mixture. These results suggest that PFAS may affect vitamin D biomarker concentrations in pregnant African American women, and some of the associations were modified by fetal sex.

While a distinctive characteristic of James Joyce’s Ulysses is that children are subjected to concurrent and contrasting adult points of view—neither perspective reveals a great deal about the lives of children in the story. This chapter presents evidence that there is a continuum of childhoods in Ulysses, organised through social class, that excludes some types of children from market participation. However, when it is possible and necessary, children in Ulysses become self-invested actors that participate in market practices and, while often collaborating in order to survive, also often exchange emotional encouragement that is otherwise unavailable to them. Unlike in Joyce’s earlier literature, therefore, childhood in Ulysses is historicized, and children’s lives are treated as separate from adult concerns.

Sustainable Food Curriculum Co-create – Empowering the Student Voice This paper will outline the current National Forum for Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education- SATLE Funded Technological University Dublin project ‘Sustainable Food Curriculum Co-Create’. The project’s goal is to build capacity for integrating sustainability learning outcomes across Food programmes through educator professional development and co-creation with students. This is being achieved through the piloting of Food sector-focused sustainability modules with co-learning for academic staff and students (5 ECTS CPD in Educating for Food Sustainability for academic staff and 5 ECTS Elective module in Food Sector Sustainability for students). Curriculum design involved several stakeholders in Education for Sustainable Development from across the Food System including enterprise and state organisations who advised on sector-specific sustainability issues, food experts from across several Schools, and sustainability experts from across the University and beyond. It also was informed by industry publications and policy frameworks. A co-creation approach was adopted as sustainable development is complex, requiring transdisciplinary problem-solving where knowledge emerges between established fields, providing space for alternative perspectives and innovative solutions. It should be influenced by viewpoints of all stakeholders, including students, enterprise, regulatory bodies, communities, and social partners [1]. Curriculum delivery included peer-lectures from staff participating on the module, lectures from experts from across the University, as well as non-academic experts who were invited to deliver key industry related elements. The student voice is captured through co-creation workshops and reflective exercises. All participants in the modules were asked to complete a reflection-in-action, which was designed to document learning transformation in knowledge, values and behaviours. All co-creation workshops were facilitated online using MS TEAMS breakout rooms. The first workshop focused on evaluating the embeddedness of sustainability within individual module descriptor by applying the AASHE-STARS [2] criteria for sustainability-focused and sustainability-related courses. Guided by the SDSN’s SDG keywords [3], a mapping of selected module’s learning outcomes, indicative syllabi, assessments and learning resources to the SDGs was also undertaken by students and staff and opportunities for enhancement were identified. Each breakout room contained a mix of staff and students who were familiar with the respective modules for evaluation. An additional workshop was run to evaluate the circularity of module delivery using SusTEACH [4]. Finally, a third workshop focused on design thinking as a problem-solving process, supported by creative online tools, for addressing super-wicked problems posed by the sustainability challenge. The assessment strategy of the Food Sector sustainability modules involved (1) reflection of personal development throughout the module, as well as on improving performance in the UN supported online multiple-choice question sustainability literacy test (SULITEST); (2) artifacts generated during the workshops and (3) for academic staff, reviewing one of their module descriptors to embed sustainability learning outcomes. Whilst staff and students were each enrolled on different versions of the programme, the underlying ethos was on co-learning. As partners equally vested in a transformative learning process for a rapidly evolving field of study, the paper will highlight the potential for impact that the project will have on catalysing action to review the School’s food education provision. [1] QAA (2014) Education for sustainable Development: Guidelines for UK Higher Education Providers. Higher Education Academy and UK QAA. [2] Technical Manual - The Sustainability Tracking, Assessment & Rating System (aashe.org) [3] Universities & SDGs | SDSN Australia, New Zealand and Pacific (ap-unsdsn.org) [4] http://www9.open.ac.uk/SusTeach/index.htm

Countries continue to debate the need for decontamination of cold-chain food packaging to reduce possible severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) fomite transmission among frontline workers. While laboratory-based studies demonstrate persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces, the likelihood of fomite-mediated transmission under real-life conditions is uncertain. Using a quantitative microbial risk assessment model of a frozen food packaging facility, we simulated 1) SARS-CoV-2 fomite-mediated infection risks following worker exposure to contaminated plastic packaging; and 2) reductions in these risks from masking, handwashing, and vaccination. In a frozen food facility without interventions, SARS-CoV-2 infection risk to a susceptible worker from contact with contaminated packaging was 1.5 × 10−3 per 1h-period (5th – 95th percentile: 9.2 × 10−6, 1.2 × 10−2). Standard food industry infection control interventions, handwashing and masking, reduced risk (99.4%) to 8.5 × 10−6 risk per 1h-period (5th – 95th percentile: 2.8 × 10−8, 6.6 × 10−5). Vaccination of the susceptible worker (two doses Pfizer/Moderna, vaccine effectiveness: 86–99%) with handwashing and masking reduced risk to 5.2 × 10−7 risk per 1h-period (5th – 95th percentile: 1.8 × 10−9, 5.4 × 10−6). Simulating increased transmissibility of current and future variants (Delta, Omicron), (2-, 10-fold viral shedding) among a fully vaccinated workforce, handwashing and masking continued to mitigate risk (1.4 × 10−6 - 8.8 × 10−6 risk per 1h-period). Additional decontamination of frozen food plastic packaging reduced infection risks to 1.2 × 10−8 risk per 1h-period (5th – 95th percentile: 1.9 × 10−11, 9.5 × 10−8). Given that standard infection control interventions reduced risks well below 1 × 10−4 (World Health Organization water quality risk thresholds), additional packaging decontamination suggest no marginal benefit in risk reduction. Consequences of this decontamination may include increased chemical exposures to workers, food quality and hazard risks to consumers, and unnecessary added costs to governments and the global food industry.