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The Stacey-Davis formulation (Stacey and Davis, 2004) for determining the Gruneisen parameter γ and its volume derivatives for the Earth outer core has been improved by using the revised values of λ 0 and λ ∞ , the third order Gruneisen parameter at zero-pressure and infinite pressure, respectively. These values of λ 0 and λ ∞ are consistent with the Stacey reciprocal K-primed equation of state. The results for gamma and its volume derivatives obtained from the Stacey-Davis formulation are compared with those calculated from the Shanker reciprocal gamma equation (Shanker et al., 2017). The parameter λ ∞ used in the present study satisfies the thermodynamic constraint found by Stacey and Hodgkinson (2019) according to which λ ∞ must be less than K ∞ ′ .

Mineral replacement reactions are one of the most important phenomena controlling the geochemical cycle of elements on Earth. In the early years, solid-state diffusion was proposed as the main mechanism for mineral replacement reactions, but over the past 20 years the importance of the coupled dissolution-reprecipitation (CDR) mechanism has been recognized. In the presence of a fluid phase and at low temperatures (e.g.

Better predictions of global warming can be enabled by tuning legacy and current computer simulations to Earth radiation budget (ERB) measurements. Since the 1970s, such orbital results exist, and the next-generation instruments such as one called “Libera” are in production. Climate communities have requested that new ERB observing system missions like these have calibration accuracy obtaining significantly improved calibration SI traceability and stability. This is to prevent untracked instrument calibration drifts that could lead to false conclusions on climate change. Based on experience from previous ERB missions, the alternative concept presented here utilizes directly viewing solar calibration, for cloud-size Earth measurement resolution at

Reduced-scale shaking table tests were performed on steel-strip back-to-back mechanically stabilised earth (MSE) wall models to evaluate the effect of the overlap length of the reinforcements (LR) and the connection arrangement of the opposing walls on the distribution of tensile force along the reinforcements and the propagation mechanism of the shear bands. The reinforcement elements were fully instrumented and particle image velocimetry (PIV) was utilised to identify the shear zones in the body of the models. On the basis of the PIV results, the combination of a concave surface and an inclined plane was determined to be the failure surface in the models. It was concluded that connecting two opposing walls can prevent the formation of a failure wedge in a back-to-back MSE wall (BBMSEW). It was observed that the geometry of the failure surface in the BBMSEWs was not affected by a change in LR, but depended on the connection arrangement of the walls. It was found that, although the use of overlapping reinforcement instead of the direct connection of two walls caused further development of shear bands, it could be a good solution in reducing the mobilised reinforcement forces in BBMSEWs.

The composition of Earth's mantle, when compared to experimentally determined partitioning coefficients, can be used to constrain the conditions of equilibration - pressure P, temperature T, and oxygen fugacity fO2 - of the metal and silicates during core-mantle differentiation.This places constraints on the thermal state of the planet during its accretion, and it is tempting to try to use these data to estimate the heat content of the core at the end of accretion. To do so, we develop an analytical model of the thermal evolution of the metal phase during its descent through the solid mantle toward the growing core, taking into account compression heating, viscous dissipation heating, and heat exchange with the surrounding silicates. For each impact, the model takes as initial condition the pressure and temperature at the base of the magma ocean, and gives the temperature of the metal when it reaches the core. The growth of the planet results in additional pressure increase and compression heating of the core. The thermal model is coupled to a Monte-Carlo inversion of the metal/silicates equilibration conditions (P, T, fO2) in the course of accretion from the abundance of Ni, Co, V and Cr in the mantle, and provides an estimate of the core heat content at the end of accretion for each geochemically successful accretion. The core heat content depends on the mean degree of metal-silicates equilibration, on the mode of metal/silicates separation in the mantle (diapirism, percolation, or dyking), but also very significantly on the shape of the equilibration conditions curve (equilibration P and T vs. fraction of Earth accreted). We find that many accretion histories which are successful in reproducing the mantle composition yield a core that is colder than its current state. Imposing that the temperature of the core at the end of accretion is higher than its current values therefore provides strong constraints on the accretion history. In particular, we find that the core heat content depends significantly on the last stages of accretion.

The Dead Sea basin is lowest terrestrial site on the globe. A meteorological station monitoring the global, UVB and UVA irradiation and the dry bulb temperature was established in 1995 in conjunction with a study of bio-climatological properties of the region with regard to photoclimatherapy treatment of dermatological diseases. The availability of such irradiation and dry bulb temperature databases has been utilized to perform a study to determine if any trends regarding either irradiation or dry bulb temperature exist at this unique site. There was no indication of any trends, based upon a p-value analysis, regarding the global, UVB and UVA irradiation. The global irradiation database included the time interval 1995-2020; whereas the corresponding time interval for the UVB and UVA irradiation databases was 1995-2018. The dry bulb temperature database consisted of the time interval 1995-2020 and, once again, no trends were observed throughout the year with the exception of the nocturnal time interval, between 18:00 to 06:00, during the month of October which exhibited a warming trend of 0.78°C/decade

For most treated soils in compacted form for earth embankments, interest had been limited to the maximum stresses they can sustain before failure. This work studied the stress–strain behaviour of a compacted lateritic soil treated with palm kernel shell ash (PKSA) from 0 to 18% at 3% intervals, with a major focus on the critical-state characteristics (beyond the maximum stresses). The lateritic soil was characterised as A-2-6(0) in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials rating and clayey sand (SC) in the Unified Soil Classification System. The PKSA was found to be pozzolanic. The British Standard light energy level of compaction and drained shear test were carried out on the treated soil. The optimum moisture content increased while the maximum dry density reduced with an increase in PKSA content. The PKSA of 0–18% content by weight of the dry soil improved the strength properties of the lateritic soil by 51·43%. The critical-state parameters (λ, Γ and M) of the soil mixtures were found to be in conformity with the usual range for untreated soils.

The evolution of the U-Pb decay system is determined by their initial isotopic composition in the proto-Earth and the subsequent global differentiation. The differentiation is highly complicated because of large-scale evaporation and multi-stage core formation in Earth accretion. We statistically rebuild the accretional history of Earth using a series of N-body simulations. This provides us with an estimation of the amount of silicate melting and thus temperature and pressure at the bottom of the magma oceans driven by continuous planetesimal impacts. We further assumed different evolutionary paths of the redox state and found a reduced process from an oxidized state consistent with the current value of Pb content and μ value (238U/204Pb) in the bulk silicate Earth. Meanwhile, the fraction of the impactor's core that participates in the re-equilibration is around 0.2–0.7. Our model predicts the final μ value equals the observed value, 8.25, regardless of the minor contribution of the late veneer (0.2). The evolution of μ determines the growth rate of radiogenic Pb isotopes. The episodic increase of μ in multi-stage core formation accelerates the growth of radiogenic Pb isotopes (206Pb and 207Pb) and finally causes a slight deviation of the composition of Pb isotopes (206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb) to the right of 4.567-Ga Earth Geochron. A multi-stage evolution model for U–Pb system can explain the modern terrestrial μ value, but has little influence on the puzzle of “the first Pb paradox”.

Seepage is a flow that happens through / under hydraulic structures or through the porous media such as in the case of earth dams from upstream to downstream due to difference in the hydraulic head. Study of seepage flow is important for hydraulic engineering. Before the structures being built, the behaviors of the seepage flows must be predicted because the seepage flow causes harmful to hydraulic structures. In this paper, a homogenous earth dam with sand material is proposed and constructed with horizontal bed filter at the Toe of the dam is taken as a case study. Through this Comsol is used to interpret the seepage of flow and contaminants transportation through the dam. The general objective of this paper is thus to present a prediction model aimed at quantifying a selected concentration of contaminants in the reservoir, and then predicted in the body of the dam, and at the exit from the dam. Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Module (Comsol version 4.2) with its sub-programs named (Free and Porous Media Flow and Species Transport through Porous Media) was used in the analysis and study the seepage flow and of the contaminants transportation. This software is based on the finite element techniques that were used for solving the governing equations of flow and transportation of contaminant through porous media. Also, it was used to determine the phreatic line, amount of seepage within the dam, the pressure head, the total head, and the amount of contaminates transported through the dam body. From the comsol software, it is deduced that when the water level is at the maximum height (20m), it needs 12 days and (18) hr, at normal height (15m) it needs 29 days, while at a minimum height (8 m) it needs 81 days to reach the drain zone.

Olivine is one of the most widespread minerals of the Earth's upper mantle. It is widely accepted in the scientific community, that during olivine interaction with water large amounts of hydrogen are released. On the other hand, the idea of an accumulation of huge hydrogen amounts in the core and lower mantle of the Earth is becoming more and more popular now. In this paper, we attempt to assess the possible interaction of hydrogen rising from the depths with olivine in the upper mantle, which has not been done before. Program GEMS was used for modeling calculations. The influence of the hydrogen amount on the serpentinization process at T = 323.15 ÷ 593.15 K and P = 3⋅107 ÷ 3⋅108 Pa has been estimated. The initial composition of the system was set as 1 mol of olivine (Fe0.1Mg0.9SiO4). The amount of added hydrogen was set as 1, 500, and 5000 mol. The water was not specified as a composition of the initial system. The simulation showed that hydrogen can cause the serpentinization process, which indicates in favor of the hypothesis about deep hydrogen sources, although it is not 100% proof of this.

Late accretion occurred through addition of massive impactors to Earth, leading to potential heterogeneity in the distribution of highly siderophile elements (HSE: Os, Ir, Ru, Pt, Pd, Re) within the mantle. Abyssal peridotites sample the present-day convecting mantle, which make them useful for examining the distribution of the HSE within the mantle. Here we report new HSE abundance data and 187Os/188Os ratios, in conjunction with mineral chemistry and bulk rock major- and trace-element compositions for abyssal peridotites from the fast-spreading Pacific Antarctic Ridge (PAR) and East Pacific Rise (Hess Deep), and for slow to intermediate spreading ridges from the Southwest Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These analyses expand the global abyssal peridotite Os isotope and HSE database, enabling evaluation of potential variations with spreading rate, from ultraslow ( 2 wt.%, the average composition of the primitive mantle is 0.3 ppb Re, 4.9 ppb Pd, 7.1 ppb Pt, 7.2 ppb Ru, 3.8 ppb Ir and Os, showing no Pd/Ir, but a positive Ru/Ir anomaly, relative to chondrites. There is ∼50% variation of the HSE abundances in the oceanic mantle, with much of this variation being observed at small length scales (

Basalts, which cover about 70% of the Earth's surface, are igneous rocks originating from cooling and solidifying the magma on the Earth's surface. Products obtained from the melting of rocks have a wide market and can be considered the precursors of glass-ceramic technology. These materials are promising due to the possibility of converting low-cost natural raw materials into products with excellent mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. In this article, a general overview of the basic principles for obtaining basaltic glass-ceramic materials will be made, as well as their properties, applications, and potentialities.

The two leading perturbations acting on satellites in the orbital decay region of low Earth orbit are gravitational nonsphericity of the Earth and atmospheric drag. A detailed understanding of thei...

In the present study Sugarcane bagasse ash has been used to stabilize the OPC cement and Wheat straws are used as a reinforcement. The attempt has been made to understand the change in the properties of the casted CEB compared to conventional ones. Thereafter, the cost consideration has also been taken in to count to define the better product. Present work support the use of SBA and WS for compressed earth blocks. Simultaneously, study also propose the future scope to determine the durability of the casted product as, both SBA and WS are Bio-degradable materials. However, both SBA and WS are agricultural waste and their disposal as a utilization for strength of earth block is a step towards green development.

Despite the unequal partitioning of land and aerosol sources between the hemispheres, Earth’s albedo is observed to be persistently symmetric about the equator. This symmetry is determined by the compensation of clouds to the clear-sky albedo. Here, the variability of this interhemispheric albedo symmetry is explored by decomposing observed radiative fluxes in the CERES EBAF satellite data record into components reflected by the atmosphere, clouds, and the surface. We find that the degree of interhemispheric albedo symmetry has not changed significantly throughout the observational record. The variability of the interhemispheric difference in reflected solar radiation (asymmetry) is strongly determined by tropical and subtropical cloud cover, particularly those related to nonneutral phases of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). As ENSO is the most significant source of interannual variability in reflected radiation on a global scale, this underscores the interhemispheric albedo symmetry as a robust feature of Earth’s current annual mean climate. Comparing this feature in observations with simulations from coupled models reveals that the degree of modeled albedo symmetry is mostly dependent on biases in reflected radiation in the midlatitudes, and that models that overestimate its variability the most have larger biases in reflected radiation in the tropics. The degree of model albedo symmetry is improved when driven with historical sea surface temperatures, indicating that the degree of symmetry in Earth’s albedo is dependent on the representation of cloud responses to coupled ocean–atmosphere processes.

Surface modification of different functional molecules onto NaREF4 (RE = rare earth) upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) impart their multiple functionalities. Functional molecules can be loaded onto NaREF4 UCNPs through the formation of coordination bonds between the surface-exposed RE3+ ions and the appropriate chemical groups of functional molecules. The density of surface RE3+ ions directly determines the loading efficiency of NaREF4 UCNPs. However, NaREF4 is a binary cation system, rendering the surface-distributed Na+ and RE3+ ions remains a mystery. Here, we develop an effective strategy to significantly enhance the density of surface RE3+ ions, thus maximizing the loading capacity of NaREF4 UCNPs. This strategy is based on a heterovalent cation exchange (HCE) reaction in the surface region in which Na+ ions are replaced by RE3+ ions. The density of surface ligands enhances from 3.6 to 8.8 molecules/nm2 after reaction, suggesting that the loading efficiency increases by approximately 150%. Benefiting from the improved loading capacity, we demonstrate such surface-RE-rich nanoparticles have the ability to offer higher colloidal stability and more desirable photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficacy. This work not only advances our understanding of cation exchange reactions in RE-based nanoparticles, but also provides significant value for considerable applications such as sensing, bioimaging, and therapy.

Quantitatively assessing the abundances of the composite minerals in terrestrial granite is crucial to understanding the evolutionary history of the earth's crust and to mineral exploration as well. Prevalent methods of estimating mineral abundances based on the Hapke model by setting the optical constants of the endmembers ahead of time are no longer applicable to terrestrial granite because of the complexity of natural granite, which leads to remarkable uncertainties in these estimations. In this study, we retrieved specific photometric parameters from the bidirectional reflectance spectra measured at a range of incidence, emergence, and phase angles before they were input into the Hapke model and used to estimate the mineral abundances. Four types of granite samples containing the main granitic minerals (quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase) were used to test the effectiveness of our proposed method. The effects of the particle size and dark minerals on the inversion results using the visible near and shortwave infrared (VNIR-SWIR) wavelengths were also examined. The results show that using the photometric parameters retrieved from multiangle measurements as inputs to the Hapke model can produce accurate estimations of the abundances of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase in both natural and synthetic granite samples. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that the retrieved particle sizes of the particulate samples are close to the ground measurements. Thus, the proposed approach provides a more accurate and efficient estimation of the compositions of terrestrial granites, making it feasible to quickly assess the abundances of the minerals contained in granite.

This work evaluated the extraction efficiency of silica from diatomaceous earth (DE) by conventional solvent extraction (CSE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) under basic and acidic (HCl) conditions utilizing response surface methodology (RSM). A common statistical model was used to get the best percentage yield and percentage purity using RSM. Experimental parameters such as stirring time, NaOH concentration (for CSE), sonication time, NaOH/HCl concentration, cycle and amplitude (for UAE methods) were optimized using central composite design (CCD). The analytical responses, that is, percentage yield and percentage purity, were analyzed using ANOVA and regression analysis. The linear coefficient of determination, R2, was high and precise. The overall yield and purity were highest for the UAE method under acid condition (pH 1-2, approximately), making it the most effective silica extraction method from DE. For this method, the optimal conditions for extracting Si from DE were 2 h of sonication, 220 mL of 2.82 M HCl as a leaching/extracting medium, 0.524 cycles and 72.6 % of amplitude. Under these conditions, 82 % of silica was yielded with a purity of about 95 %. The experimental results indicate that high-quality silica can be produced from DE in high yield so that DE can be an alternative silica source. Keywords: Diatomaceous earth, silica, response surface methodology, ultrasound-assisted extraction, conventional solvent extraction.

The paper presents the results of analysis of electrical measurements performed in the space experiment "Impulse (stage 1)" on the Service module of the ISS RS. This experiment investigated the effects of the interaction of the charged component of the ionosphere to the surface of large KA, which is the ISS. This paper analyses the measurement of quasi-stationary electric field and current leakage, was, respectively, sensors of the vibration type and flat probes from the Complex control electrophysical parameters (CCEP), developed by SPJ MT. To study the dependence of measurements from the ionosphere flow direction to the surface of the ISS RS was installed two sets of sensors with the direction of the angle of "visibility" in the Nadir (towards the Earth) and to "satellite footprint " (against the velocity vector of the ISS). Carried out analysis of common regularities measurements depending on the sun-shadow environment on orbit ISS motions and depending on current geophysical dynamics of the ionosphere. Massive the measurements including more than 170 telemetric sessions were analyzed. More than 11000 hours of measurements current of leakage (or runoff current) and measurements of quasi-stationary electric field with discretization 1s and UT binding to each point were analysed. The data measurements, geophysical and orbital data were collected in an electronic album. It is shown that experimental data correlate with the crossing time of the ISS boundaries known geophysical structures: the noon Meridian, the Main ionospheric failure (MIF), the boundaries diffuse intrusion (BDI), the Equatorial Geomagnetic anomaly (EA). In this regard, despite the specificity of the ISS (the spacecraft super big sizes, the most complex spatial configuration) similar measurements, nevertheless, are quite suitable for monitoring researches of some features of an ionosphere at the level of F2 layer with a temporary scale from 1s and can be used for more detailed study of the geophysical structures and related effects in the ionosphere. In addition, the results obtained can be used for the analysis of disturbances of electromagnetic conditions near the surface of the ISS RS, for monitoring potential and currents of leakage on the surface of the ISS. Keywords: electrophysical measurements, sensors of the vibration type, flat probes, electric field, current leakage, geophysical structure, ionosphere

Oxygen fugacity controls the behavior of multivalent elements and compositions of C-O-H fluids in Earth’s mantle, which further affects the cycling of materials between the deep interior and surfac...

In this study, a methodology has been developed for the detection of mucilage with the help of remote sensing (UA) techniques by considering the current mucilage formation in the Sea of Marmara. For this purpose, mucilage formation from10.03.2021 to 06.06.2021 was determined by classification of Sentinel-2 (MSI) satellite images using Random Forest (RF) algorithm on Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) and the Automated Water Extraction Index (AWEI) indexes were used for classification. In the classification study, 5 different date ranges were determined by considering the availability of satellite images and cloud ratio. In the first date range (10.03.2021-30.03.2021), the first mucilage image was detected in the Dardanelles Strait. In the following dates, the spread of mucilage towards the Gulf of Izmit and the Gulf of Gemlik in addition to the Dardanelles was determined. Finally, in the images dated between 17.05.2021-06.06.2021, it was seen that the density of mucilage increased in the Dardanelles Strait, Izmit Gulf, Gemlik Gulf, Erdek Kapıdağ Peninsula and the north of the Marmara Island. The area covered by mucilage as of the last date range was calculated as 12,741.94 ha, and this value shows that 1.07% of the Sea of Marmara is covered with mucilage. With this developed methodology, it has been seen that mucilage formation can be detected quickly within minutes and with high accuracy from satellite images anywhere in the world.

As part of the space experiment “Test”, a roll of cotton cloth fixed on the outer surface of the International Space Station for more than 10 years was delivered to the Earth in September 2019. The elemental composition of two fragments of the cloth, contaminated and clean, was determined using instrumental neutron activation analysis at the IBR-2 reactor. Along with 19 elements (Mg, Al, Cl, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ag, Sb, Ba, Sm) determined on both fragments of the cloth, additional 20 elements (Na, Si, Sc, Cu, As, Se, Br, Mo, Zr, Cd, I, La, Ce, Eu, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Th, and U) were determined only on the contaminated fragment. The morphology of the rolled cotton cloth was characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy. Gama and liquid beta spectroscopy were applied to measure the radioactivity of the cloth fragments. Possible sources of the determined chemical elements deposited on the cloth were discussed.

Trevor Evans was responsible for revealing the main physical processes which take place in natural diamond both in the upper mantle of the earth, where it is stabilized by high pressure and temperature, and as it is ejected by volcanic action to the surface. By measuring the activation energies required for graphitization, he clarified the reason for its very long life as a metastable crystal, valuable both as a gemstone and as an industrial abrasive. He learned how to make diamond specimens for examination in the transmission electron microscope, which enabled his discovery of dislocation loops and platelet precipitates in nitrogen-containing (type 1) stones. In a series of exacting laboratory experiments under geologically relevant conditions he pioneered the study of the emergence of nitrogen from solution to precipitation during the ejection process. In synthetic diamonds, using high-energy electron irradiation, he was able to reproduce the sequence of all the various types of nitrogen aggregation found in natural diamond. His work played a major role underpinning the characterization of gemstones, explaining many features of their colour. For many years he led diamond research in the UK, supported by De Beers. His work stimulated and has been confirmed by research in many other laboratories around the world.

Feldspars are the most abundant minerals in the Earth’s crust, and are also important constituents of many lunar rocks and some stony meteorites. Albite (NaAlSi3O8) makes up the sodium corner of the feldspar ternary diagram (KAlSi3O8 - NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) and connects the alkali-feldspar and plagioclase binary joins. Synthesis of albite, however, has long been a problem, even at high temperatures and even at high pressures when dry. In fact, most successful syntheses require the combination of high-pressure, high-temperature, and hydrothermal environments. This paper presents a sol–gel method of albite synthesis that requires hydrothermal processing followed by high-temperature recrystallization, but no high-pressure environments. This has the advantage of allowing synthesis of relatively large amounts of material and controlled elemental substitutions.

The isotopic composition of water in Earth’s oceans is challenging to recreate using a plausible mixture of known extraterrestrial sources such as asteroids—an additional isotopically light reservoir is required. The Sun’s solar wind could provide an answer to balance Earth’s water budget. We used atom probe tomography to directly observe an average ~1 mol% enrichment in water and hydroxyls in the solar-wind-irradiated rim of an olivine grain from the S-type asteroid Itokawa. We also experimentally confirm that H+ irradiation of silicate mineral surfaces produces water molecules. These results suggest that the Itokawa regolith could contain ~20 l m−3 of solar-wind-derived water and that such water reservoirs are probably ubiquitous on airless worlds throughout our Galaxy. The production of this isotopically light water reservoir by solar wind implantation into fine-grained silicates may have been a particularly important process in the early Solar System, potentially providing a means to recreate Earth’s current water isotope ratios. Water and hydroxyl enrichment in the solar-wind-irradiated rim of an olivine grain from asteroid Itokawa suggests that its regolith could contain ~20 l m−3 of water from solar wind—a potential water source for airless planetary bodies.

The sustainability of the hydrological and ecological ecosystems of any region requires continuous monitoring of the water bodies. Recent advancements in satellite-based remote optical sensors, big data analysis and cloud computing have given new dimensions to the field of water body studies including their detection as well as analysis. The present study extends the existing methods to assess the contemporary surface water detection and monitoring techniques via remote sensing. The proposed technique implies an improved hybrid approach for the purpose along with the calculation of the boundary areas. The study has been carried out on the Manchar Lake, the largest natural freshwater lake in Pakistan as well as in South Asia. The proposed hybrid water index along with the different existing water body detection indices and spectral bands have been worked out on the satellite images retrieved from the Google Earth Engine to detect and analyze the area/flow changes in the water body. Based on the 7 years of data, the proposed algorithm calculates the water body area more precisely. With limited availability of metadata about the study area, the results have been validated both qualitatively through national-met data and statistically. These results help to better preserve and improve the quality of the water resource.

Arc magmas globally are H2O-Cl-S–rich and moderately oxidized (ΔFMQ = +1 to +2) relative to most other mantle-derived magmas (ΔFMQ ≤ 0). Their relatively high oxidation state limits the extent to which sulfide phases separate from the magma, which would otherwise tend to deplete the melt in chalcophile elements such as Cu (highly siderophile elements such as Au and especially platinum-group elements are depleted by even small amounts of sulfide segregation). As these magmas rise into the crust and begin to crystallize, they will reach volatile saturation, and a hydrous, saline, S-rich, moderately oxidized fluid is released, into which chalcophile and any remaining siderophile metals (as well as many other water-soluble elements) will strongly partition. This magmatic-hydrothermal fluid phase has the potential to form ore deposits (most commonly porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits) if its metal load is precipitated in economic concentrations, but there are many steps along the way that must be successfully negotiated before this can occur. This paper seeks to identify the main steps along the path from magma genesis to hydrothermal mineral precipitation that affect the chances of forming an ore deposit (defined as an economically mineable resource) and attempts to estimate the probability of achieving each step. The cumulative probability of forming a large porphyry Cu deposit at any given time in an arc magmatic system (i.e., a single batholith-linked volcanoplutonic complex) is estimated to be ~0.001%, and less than 1/10 of these deposits will be uplifted and exposed at shallow enough depths to mine economically (0.0001%). Continued uplift and erosion in active convergent tectonic regimes rapidly remove these upper-crustal deposits from the geological record, such that the probability of finding them in older arc systems decreases further with age, to the point that porphyry Cu deposits are almost nonexistent in Precambrian rocks. A key finding of this paper is that most volcanoplutonic arcs above subduction zones are prospective for porphyry ore formation, with probabilities only falling to low values at late stages of magmatic-hydrothermal fluid exsolution, focusing, and metal deposition. This is in part because of the high threshold required in terms of grade and tonnage for a deposit to be considered economic. Thus, the probability of forming a porphyry-type system in any given arc segment is relatively high, but the probability that it will be a large economic deposit is low, dictated to a large extent by mineral economics and metal prices.

The elemental composition of the fragment of one of the biggest meteorites, which entered the Earth's atmosphere over Chelyabinsk, Russia was investigated by instrumental neutron activation analysis at the IBR-2 reactor. A total of 27 major and trace elements Si, Ti, Cr, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, V, Sc, Co, Ni, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Mo, Ag, Sb, Cs, Sm, Tm, Ir, Au, U was determined in the analyzed fragment. Obtained values were compared with the average composition of LL-chondrites and results reported by other scientific groups.

The energy conversion in Earth’s surface environments over geological history heavily involves the redox reactions of natural minerals. Natural Mn(III/IV) oxides and Mn2+(aq) is one of the most important redox couples that significantly dictate the electron flow in nature. Elucidating their formation and redox reactions is of critical importance for understanding numerous elemental cycles and the evolution of redox environments on Earth and other planets. Previous studies generally consider biotic processes as the dominant oxidation pathway for Mn2+(aq) in natural environments. In this study, we demonstrate rapid abiotic oxidation of Mn2+(aq) through photocatalytic reactions in the presence of natural Fe oxide minerals at rates comparable to those of currently known biotic/abiotic oxidation processes. Fe oxide minerals not only facilitate the electron transfer, but also serve as templates for the heterogeneous nucleation of tunnel structured Mn oxides. This finding highlights an important yet previously overlooked abiotic process on the formation of Mn oxides, which offers a new pathway for explaining the commonly observed co-occurrence of Fe and Mn oxide minerals in nature and the origin of diverse structures of Mn oxides.

As a rule, researchers do not consider the dependence of the inductance of cable lines on frequency in their scientific papers devoted to the calculation of transient processes during single phase-to-ground fault in 6–10 cable networks. In some cases, it can lead to significant errors in evaluation of current and voltage transient components parameters. Therefore, it is an urgent task to estimate defined errors and the scope of application of frequency-independent equivalent circuits and models of 6–10 kV cable lines during calculation and simulation of transient processes in case of single phase-to-ground fault. The authors applied PSCAD / EMTDC software to study the effect of the frequency dependence of the inductances of 6–10 kV cable lines on the calculation accuracy of transient processes during single phase-to-ground fault. It allows to simulate electric power systems models with the usage of both frequency-dependent and frequency-independent cable line models with round conductors only. To check the adequacy of the frequency-dependent three phase cable model developed in PSCAD software, the authors have used a frequency-dependent model of 6–10 kV three-phase cable with sector-shaped conductors designed in COMSOL Multiphysics software. The authors have developed an approach to develop of 610 kV cable lines models with frequency-dependent and frequency-independent parameters. The authors have obtained error estimation in transient current and voltage parameters during single phase-to-ground fault in cable networks models that do not consider the frequency dependence on inductance (for discharge components the error is 1520 %, for charging components the error is equal to 510 %). It is shown that models with cable line parameters defined according to spreading speed of electromagnetic wave, can be used for approximate calculation of transient current and voltage to solve most of tasks of investigation of transient processes during single phase-to-ground faults. Application of the developed recommendations to determine three phase medium voltage cable lines parameters will increase the calculation accuracy of transient processes during single phase-to-ground faults in 6–10 kV cable networks. Only application of frequency-dependent models of cable lines allows us to provide required accuracy to develop methods of distant earth fault localization in 6–10 kV networks.

The Great Oxidation Event (GOE), among Earth's most transformative events, marked the sustained presence of oxygen above 10−5 times the present atmospheric level. Estimates of the onset of the GOE span 2501–2225 Ma and are based primarily on the loss of mass-independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes (MIF-S) in pyrite. To better constrain the timing of the GOE, we apply probabilistic techniques to estimate the confidence intervals of four proxies: MIF-S, redox-sensitive detrital minerals, “red beds,” and I/(Ca + Mg). These GOE proxies are drawn from a highly fragmentary geologic record, and consequently, estimates of the 95% confidence intervals span tens to hundreds of millions of years—orders of magnitude larger than suggested by radiometric constraints on individual successions. Confidence interval results suggest that red beds and nonzero I/(Ca + Mg) values may have appeared earlier than 2480 Ma and 2460 Ma, respectively, whereas redox-sensitive detrital minerals and MIF-S may have disappeared after 2210 Ma and 2190 Ma, respectively. These data suggest a delay of potentially >300 m.y. between initial and permanent oxygenation of the atmosphere and a delay of tens of millions of years between onset of the Lomagundi-Jatuli carbon isotope excursion and permanent oxygenation of the atmosphere.

Soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) is a very important property of unsaturated soil and by extension tropical red earth soils. This is because several other important soils’ properties can be related to it. The Filter paper method was employed in the determination of the A-7-5(5) tropical red earth WCC. The gravimetric water content was utilized in the computation of the SWCC. Four models, Fredlund and Xing (1994), FX; Van Genuchten (1980), VG; Brooks and Corey (1964), BC; and Kosugi (1996), K were used to estimate the SWCCs of the soil and the minimum SSEnorm (MSSE), Average Relative Error (ARE), and R2 values were used to determine the most suitable model for predicting the SWCC. Results show that all four models can be used to predict A-7-5(5) WCC as they all had R2 value greater than 89% although BC and K models perform best with coefficient of determination of over 97%. MSSE and ARE% were also significantly low for BC and K models.

Researching and modeling perturbations is essential in astrodynamics because it gives information on the deviations from the satellite's normal, idealized, or unperturbed motion. Examined the impact of non-conservative atmospheric drag and orbital elements of low-earth-orbit satellites under low solar activity. The study is consisting of parts, the first looks at the effects of atmospheric drag on LEO satellites different area to mass ratios, and the second looks at different inclination values. Modeling the impacts of perturbation is included in each section, and the final portion determines the effects of atmospheric drag at various node values. The simulation was run using the Celestial Mechanics software system's SATORB module (Beutler, 2005), which solves the perturbation equations via numerical integration. The findings were examined using Matlab 2012. Conclusion that the impacts are stronger for retrograde orbits, which is due to the fact that the satellite moves in the opposite direction. The atmospheric drag effects for all orbital elements were increased by increasing the area to mass ratio. When the node value rises, the size parameter changes slightly, but the other orbital elements change. At varying inclinations, it is found that the changes in orbital elements due to atmospheric drug.

Описывается программная реализация быстрого алгоритма поиска распределенных рассеивателей для задачи построения скоростей смещений земной поверхности на базе платформы Apache Spark. Рассматривается полная схема расчета скоростей смещений методом постоянных рассеивателей. Предложенный алгоритм интегрируется в схему после этапа совмещения с субпиксельной точностью стека изображений временн´ой серии радарных снимков космического аппарата Sentinel-1. Алгоритм не является итерационным и может быть реализован в парадигме параллельных вычислений. Применяемая платформа Apache Spark позволила распределенно обрабатывать массивы стека радарных данных (от 60 изображений) в памяти на большом количестве физических узлов в сетевой среде. Время поиска распределенных рассеивателей удалось снизить в среднем до десяти раз по сравнению с однопроцессорной реализацией алгоритма. Приведены сравнительные результаты тестирования вычислительной системы на демонстрационном кластере. Алгоритм реализован на языке программирования Python c подробным описанием методов и объектов The article describes implementation of the software for a fast algorithm which finds distributed scatterers for the problem of plotting displacement velocities of the earth’s surface based on the Apache Spark platform. The Persistent Scatterer (PS) method is widely used for estimating the displacement rates of the earth’s surface. It consists of the identification of coherent radar targets (interferogram pixels) that demonstrate high phase stability during the entire observation period. The most advanced algorithm for solving the identification problem is the SqueeSAR algorithm. It allows searching and processing Distributed Scatterers (DS) - specific reflectors, integrating them into the general scheme for calculating displacement velocities using the PS method. A careful analysis of the SqueeSAR algorithm has identified areas that are critical to its performance. The whole algorithm is based on an enumeration of the initial data, where nontrivial transformations are performed at each step. The stages of searching for adjacent points in the design window with multiple passes over the entire area of the image and solving the maximization problem when assessing the real values of the interferometric phases turned out to be noticeably costly. To speed up the processing of images, it is proposed to use the Apache Spark massively parallel computing platform. Specialized primitives (Resilient Distributed Data) for recurrent inmemory processing are available here. This provides multiple accesses to the radar data loaded into memory from each cluster node and allows logical dividing of the snapshot stack into subareas. Thus calculations are performed independently in massively parallel mode. Based on the SqueeSAR mathematical model, it is assumed that the radar image data and the calculated geophysical parameters calculated are common for each statistically homogeneous sample of nearby pixels. In accordance with this assumption, the uniformity (homogeneity) of the pixels is estimated within a given window. The search for distributed scatterers occurs independently by the sequence of shifts of the windows over the entire area of the image. The window is shifted along the width and height of the image with a step equal to the width and height of the window. Pairs of samples in the window are composed of vectors of complex pixel values in each of the N images. The validity of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov criterion is checked for each of the pairs. To estimate the values of the phases of homogeneous pixels, the maximization problem is solved. The method of maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is considered. The construction of the correct MLE form is carried out by analyzing the statistical properties of the coherence matrix of all images using the complex Wishart distribution. The Apache Spark platform applied here permits processing of distributed radar data stack arrays in memory on a large number of physical nodes in a network environment. The average search time for distributed scatterers turned out to be 10 times less compared to the uniprocessor implementation of the algorithm. The algorithm is implemented in the Python programming language with a detailed description of the objects and methods of the algorithm. The proposed algorithm and its parallel implementation allows applying the developed approaches to other problems and types of satellite data for remote sensing of the earth from space

Natural environmental radioactivity aroused mainly from primordial radionuclides such as 40K and 238U and 232Th decay series, and have been present in varying concentrations within the earth and in...

Based on ab initio calculations within the density functional theory and crystal structure prediction algorithms, the structure and stability of iron–nitrogen compounds in the pressure range of 100...

Natural perchlorate (ClO4−) exists in many places on Earth, in lunar regolith, meteorites, and on the surface of Mars. Terrestrial natural ClO4− has widely variable Cl and O stable isotopic compositions (δ37Cl, δ18O, Δ17O). The δ18O and Δ17O values of ClO4− from the most hyper-arid locations co-vary. ClO4− from less arid areas has relatively little 17O excess and poor Δ17O-δ18O correlation. ClO4− from the Atacama Desert has unusually low δ37Cl (

Xiaolangdi Reservoir is a key control project to control the water and sediment in the lower Yellow River, and a timely and accurate grasp of the reservoir’s water storage status is essential for the function of the reservoir. This study used all available Landsat images (789 scenes) and adopted the modified normalized difference water index, enhanced vegetation index, and normalized difference vegetation index to map the surface water from 1999 to 2019 in Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform. The spatiotemporal characteristics of the surface water body area changes in the Xiaolangdi Reservoir in the past 21 years are analyzed from the water body type division, area change, type conversion, and the driving force of the Xiaolangdi water body area changes was analyzed. The results showed that (1) the overall accuracy of the water body extraction method was 98.86%, and the kappa coefficient was 0.96; (2) the maximum water body area of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir varies greatly between inter-annual and intra-annual, and seasonal water body and permanent water body have uneven spatiotemporal distribution; (3) in the conversion of water body types, the increased seasonal water body area of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir from 1999 to 2019 was mainly formed by the conversion of permanent water body, and the reduced permanent water body area was mainly caused by non-water conversion; and (4) the change of the water body area of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir has a weak negative correlation with natural factors such as precipitation and temperature, and population. It is positively correlated with seven indicators such as runoff and regional gross domestic product (GDP). The findings of the research will provide necessary data support for the management and planning of soil and water resources in the Xiaolangdi Reservoir.

Despite its status as a critical metal in the EU and the U.S., the geochemical behavior of gallium (Ga) in the Earth’s surface environment is not yet well constrained, which is in marked contrast to its geochemical partner aluminum (Al). Especially hydrogenetic ferromanganese crusts which may represent a potential future unconventional resource of critical metals, are surprisingly underexplored with regard to their Ga-Al systematics. This study presents the first data on the Ga-Al pair in hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts from various locations in the Pacific Ocean and from the Rio Grande Rise in the SW Atlantic. We also provide Ga-Al data for certified reference materials for Fe-Mn nodules NOD-P-1, NOD-A-1, and JMn-1. Our results also show that marine hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts cannot be considered an unconventional Ga resource, in marked contrast to several other critical metals. Aluminum and Ga concentrations in these precipitates are not controlled by detrital components. Both elements show a geochemical behavior comparable to that of the hydroxide-dominated elements Zr and Hf during scavenging from ambient seawater by hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts. The Ga/Al mass ratios of Atlantic (0.10–0.16 g/kg) and Pacific crusts (0.18–1.2 g/kg) are about one and a half orders of magnitude lower than those of respective ambient seawater and mimic the inter-oceanic fractionation of the Ga-Al pair between these two ocean basins. Without exception, the Atlantic Fe-Mn crusts show lower Ga/Al ratios than the Pacific crusts. The systematically lower Ga/Al ratios of the crusts relative to those of seawater reveal preferential scavenging of Al relative to Ga during the formation of Fe-Mn crusts. This is in line with previous studies that reported a higher particle reactivity of Al compared to Ga in the marine environment. However, this fractionation trend contradicts predictions based on a simplified model commonly used to approximate trace element scavenging by marine metal (hydr)oxides based on hydrolysis constants, which favors Ga enrichment relative to Al as the hydrolysis constant of Ga is higher than that of Al. The observed Ga-Al fractionation may be related to the preferential retention of Al compared to Ga on the surface of the Fe-Mn (oxyhydr)oxides because in contrast to Ga, desorption of Al is characterized by very slow reaction kinetics or is even irreversible. Alternatively, stronger organic complexation of dissolved Ga than Al in seawater (which is supported by the stability constants of various organic Ga and Al complexes) and the resulting preferential retention of Ga over Al in solution by dissolved organic ligands may be another viable mechanism to explain the observed Ga-Al fractionation between hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts and seawater. While more experimentally determined thermodynamic data are necessary, the rather consistent difference between hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts and ambient seawater supports an important role of organic ligands in the chemical speciation of Ga in seawater.

The Earth’s inner core comprises iron-nickel alloys with light elements. However, there is no clarity on the phase properties of these alloys. Here we show phase relations and equations of state of iron–nickel and iron–nickel–silicon alloys up to 186 gigapascals and 3090 kelvin. An ordered derivative of the body-centred cubic structure (B2) phase was observed in these alloys. Results show that nickel and silicon influence the stability field associated with the two-phase mixture of B2 and hexagonal close-packed phases under core conditions. The two-phase mixture can give the inner core density of the preliminary reference Earth model. The compressional wave velocity of the two-phase mixture under inner core conditions is consistent with that of the preliminary reference Earth model. Therefore, a mixture of B2 and hexagonal close-packed phases may exist in the inner core and accounts for the seismological properties of the inner core such as density and velocity deficits. The density and velocity of the inner core deduced from seismic observations can be explained by a two-phase mixture of ordered body-centred cubic and hexagonal close-packed phases, according to high pressure and temperature experiments

Platinum group elements are invaluable tracers for planetary accretion and differentiation and the formation of PGE sulfide deposits. Previous laboratory determinations of the sulfide liquid–basaltic melt partition coefficients of PGE (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${D}_{PGE}^{SL/SM}$$\end{document}DPGESL/SM) yielded values of 102–109, and values of >105 have been accepted by the geochemical and cosmochemical society. Here we perform measurements of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${D}_{Pt,\,Pd}^{SL/SM}$$\end{document}DPt,PdSL/SM at 1 GPa and 1,400 °C, and find that \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${D}_{Pt,\,Pd}^{SL/SM}$$\end{document}DPt,PdSL/SM increase respectively from 3,500 to 3.5 × 105 and 1,800 to 7 × 105, as the Pt and Pd concentration in the sulfide liquid increases from 60 to 21,000 ppm and 26 to 7,000 ppm, respectively, implying non-Henrian behavior of the Pt and Pd partitioning. The use of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${D}_{Pt,\,Pd}^{SL/SM}$$\end{document}DPt,PdSL/SM values of 2,000–6,000 well explains the Pt and Pd systematics of Earth’s mantle peridotites and mid-ocean ridge basalts. Our findings suggest that the behavior of PGE needs to be reevaluated when using them to trace planetary magmatic processes., Platinum group elements are used as tracers for planetary and PGE sulfide deposit formation. Here, the authors, through the measurements of Pt and Pd partition coefficients between sulfide liquid and basaltic melt, demonstrate that the partitioning of Pt and Pd does not obey Henry’s law.