Search

In recent years, variants in the catalytic and regulatory subunits of the kinase CK2 have been found to underlie two different, yet symptomatically overlapping neurodevelopmental disorders, termed Okur-Chung neurodevelopmental syndrome (OCNDS) and Poirier-Bienvenu neurodevelopmental syndrome (POBINDS). Both conditions are predominantly caused by de novo missense or nonsense mono-allelic variants. They are characterized by a generalized developmental delay, intellectual disability, behavioral problems (hyperactivity, repetitive movements and social interaction deficits), hypotonia, motricity and verbalization deficits. One of the main features of POBINDS is epilepsies, which are present with much lower prevalence in patients with OCNDS. While a role for CK2 in brain functioning and development is well acknowledged, these findings for the first time clearly link CK2 to defined brain disorders. Our review will bring together patient data for both syndromes, aiming to link symptoms with genotypes, and to rationalize the symptoms through known cellular functions of CK2 that have been identified in preclinical and biochemical contexts. We will also compare the symptomatology and elaborate the specificities that distinguish the two syndromes.

L-Dopa induced dyskinesia (LID) is a debilitating side effect of dopamine replacement therapy for Parkinson’s Disease. The mechanistic underpinnings of LID remain obscure. Here we report that diminished sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling in the basal ganglia caused by the degeneration of midbrain dopamine neurons facilitates the formation and expression of LID. We find that the pharmacological activation of Smoothened, a downstream effector of Shh, attenuates LID in the neurotoxic 6-OHDA- and genetic aphakia mouse models of Parkinson’s Disease. Employing conditional genetic loss-of-function approaches, we show that reducing Shh secretion from dopamine neurons or Smoothened activity in cholinergic interneurons promotes LID. Conversely, the selective expression of constitutively active Smoothened in cholinergic interneurons is sufficient to render the sensitized aphakia model of Parkinson’s Disease resistant to LID. Furthermore, acute depletion of Shh from dopamine neurons through prolonged optogenetic stimulation in otherwise intact mice and in the absence of L-Dopa produces LID-like involuntary movements. These findings indicate that augmenting Shh signaling in the L-Dopa treated brain may be a promising therapeutic approach for mitigating the dyskinetic side effects of long-term treatment with L-Dopa., Lauren Malave et al. examine the impact of sonic hedgehog signaling in the dorsal striatum in L-Dopa induced dyskinesia (LID) animal models. Their results suggest that increasing sonic hedgehog signaling can reduce the severity of LID and abnormal involuntary movements, suggesting future therapeutic approaches to mitigate dyskinetic comorbidities of long-term treatment with L-Dopa.

The Lower Austrian Wachau region was an early COVID-19 hotspot of infection. As previously reported, in June 2020, after the first peak of infections, we determined that 8.5% and 9.0% of the participants in Weißenkirchen and surrounding communities in the Wachau region were positive for immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies against the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, respectively. Here, we present novel data obtained eight months later (February 2021) from Weißenkirchen, after the second peak of infection, with 25.0% (138/552) and 23.6% (130/552) of participants that are positive for IgG and IgA, respectively. In participants with previous IgG/IgA positivity (June 2020), we observed a 24% reduction in IgG levels, whereas the IgA levels remained stable in February 2021. This subgroup was further analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 induced T cell activities. Although 76% (34/45) and 76% (34/45) of IgG positive and IgA positive participants, respectively, showed specific T cell activities (upon exposure to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-derived peptides), those were not significantly correlated with the levels of IgG or IgA. Thus, the analyses of antibodies cannot surrogate the measurement of T cell activities. For a comprehensive view on SARS-CoV-2-triggered immune responses, the measurement of different classes of antibodies should be complemented with the determination of T cell activities.

The Lower Austrian Wachau region was an early COVID-19 hotspot of infection. As previously reported, in June 2020, after the first peak of infections, we determined that 8.5% and 9.0% of the participants in Weißenkirchen and surrounding communities in the Wachau region were positive for SARS-CoV-2-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies, respectively. Here, we present novel data obtained eight months later (February 2021) from Weißenkirchen, after the second peak of infection, with 25.0% (138/552) and 23.6% (130/552) of participants that are positive for IgG and IgA, respectively. In participants with previous IgG/IgA positivity (June 2020), we observed a 24% reduction in IgG levels, whereas the IgA levels remained stable in February 2021. This subgroup was further analyzed for SARS-CoV-2-induced T cell activities. Although 76% (34/45) and 76% (34/45) of IgG positive and IgA positive participants, respectively, showed specific T cell activities, those were not significantly correlated with the levels of IgG or IgA. Thus, the analyses of antibodies cannot surrogate the measurement of T cell activities. For a comprehensive view on SARS-CoV-2-triggered immune responses, the measurement of different classes of antibodies should be complemented with the determination of T cell activities.

Background Smell dysfunction has been recognized as an early symptom of SARS-CoV-2 infection, often occurring before the onset of core symptoms of the respiratory tract, fever or muscle pain. In most cases, olfactory dysfunction is accompanied by reduced sense of taste, is partial (microsmia) and seems to normalize after several weeks, however, especially in cases of virus-induced complete smell loss (anosmia), there are indications of persisting deficits even 2 months after recovery from the acute disease, pointing towards the possibility of chronic or even permanent smell reduction for a significant part of the patient population. To date, we have no knowledge on the specificity of anosmia towards specific odorants or chemicals and about the longer-term timeline of its persistence or reversal. Methods In this longitudinal study, 70 participants from a community in Lower Austria that had been tested positive for either IgG or IgM SARS-CoV-2 titers in June 2020 and a healthy control cohort (N = 348) underwent smell testing with a 12-item Cross-Cultural Smell Identification Test (CC-SIT), based upon items from the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). The test was performed in October 2020, i.e. 4 months after initial diagnosis via antibody testing. Results were analyzed using statistical tests for contingency for each smell individually in order to detect whether reacquisition of smell is dependent on specific odorant types. Results For all odorants tested, except the odor “smoke”, even 4 months or more after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, participants with a positive antibody titer had a reduced sense of smell when compared to the control group. On average, while the control cohort detected a set of 12 different smells with 88.0% accuracy, the antibody-positive group detected 80.0% of tested odorants. A reduction of accuracy of detection by 9.1% in the antibody-positive cohort was detected. Recovery of the ability to smell was particularly delayed for three odorants: strawberry (encoded by the aldehyde ethylmethylphenylglycidate), lemon (encoded by citronellal, a monoterpenoid aldehyde), and soap (alkali metal salts of the fatty acids plus odorous additives) exhibit a sensitivity of detection of an infection with SARS-CoV-2 of 31.0%, 41.0% and 40.0%, respectively. Conclusion Four months or more after acute infection, smell performance of SARS-CoV-2 positive patients with mild or no symptoms is not fully recovered, whereby the ability to detect certain odors (strawberry, lemon and soap) is particularly affected, suggesting the possibility that these sensitivity to these smells may not only be lagging behind but may be more permanently affected.

The Okur-Chung Neurodevelopmental Syndrome, or OCNDS, is a newly discovered rare neurodevelopmental disorder. It is characterized by developmental delay, intellectual disability, behavioral problems (hyperactivity, repetitive movements and social interaction deficits), hypotonia, epilepsy and language/verbalization deficits. OCNDS is linked to de novo variants in CSNK2A1, that lead to missense or deletion/truncating mutations in the encoded protein, the protein kinase CK2a. Eighteen different missense CK2a mutants have been identified to date, however no biochemical or cell biological studies have yet been performed to clarify the functional impact of such mutations. Here, we show that 15 different missense CK2a mutations lead to varying degrees of loss of kinase activity as recombinant purified proteins and when mutants are ectopically expressed in mammalian cells. We further detect changes in the phosphoproteome of three patient derived fibroblast lines and show that the subcellular localization of CK2a is altered for some of the OCNDS-linked mutants and in patient derived fibroblasts. Our data argue that reduced kinase activity and abnormal localization of CK2a may underlie the OCNDS phenotype.

The loss of the senses of smell (anosmia) and taste (ageusia) are rather common disorders, affecting up to 20% of the adult population. Yet, this condition has not received the attention it deserves, most probably because per se such a disorder is not life threatening. However, loss of olfactory function significantly reduces the quality of life of the affected patients, leading to dislike in food and insufficient, exaggerated or unbalanced food intake, unintentional exposure to toxins such as household gas, social isolation, depression, and an overall insecurity. Not only is olfactory dysfunction rather prevalent in the healthy population, it is, in many instances, also a correlate or an early indicator of a panoply of diseases. Importantly, olfactory dysfunction is linked to the two most prominent neurodegenerative disorders, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Anosmia and hyposmia (reduced sense of smell) affect a majority of patients years before the onset of cognitive or motor symptoms, establishing olfactory dysfunction as early biomarker that can enable earlier diagnosis and preventative treatments. In the current health crisis caused by SARS-CoV2, anosmia and dysgeusia as early-onset symptoms in virus-positive patients may prove to be highly relevant and crucial for pre-symptomatic Covid-19 detection from a public health perspective, preceding by days the more classical respiratory tract symptoms such as cough, tightness of the chest or fever. Thus, the olfactory system seems to be at the frontline of pathologic assault, be it through pathogens or insults that can lead to or at least associate with neurodegeneration. The aim of this review is to assemble current knowledge from different medical fields that all share a common denominator, olfactory/gustatory dysfunction, and to distill overarching etiologies and disease progression mechanisms.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

L-Dopa induced dyskinesia (LID) is a debilitating side effect of dopamine replacement therapy for Parkinson’s Disease. The mechanistic underpinnings of LID remain obscure. Here we report that diminshed sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling in the basal ganglia caused by the degeneration of midbrain dopamine neurons (DANs) facilitates the formation and expression of LID. We demonstrate that augmenting Shh signaling with agonists of the Shh effector Smoothened attenuates LID in mouse and macaque models of PD. Employing conditional genetic loss-of-function approaches, we show that reducing Shh secretion from DANs or Smo activity in cholinergic interneurons (CINs) promotes LID. Conversely, the selective expression of constitutively active Smo (SmoM2) in CINs is sufficient to render the sensitized aphakia model of PD resistant to LID. Furthermore, acute depletion of Shh from DANs through prolonged optogenetic stimulation in otherwise intact mice and in the absence of L-Dopa produces LID-like involuntary movements. These findings indicate that augmenting Shh signaling in the L-Dopa treated brain may be a promising and unexpected novel therapeutic approach for mitigating the dyskinetic side effects of long-term treatment with L-Dopa

The serotonergic neurotransmitter system has been widely implicated in the pathophysiology of mood-related disorders such as anxiety and major depressive disorder (MDD). The onset of therapeutic efficacy of traditional antidepressants is delayed by several weeks. The 5-HT4 receptor has emerged as a new therapeutic target since agonists of this receptor induce rapid antidepressant-like responses in rodents. Here we show that the 5-HT4 receptor is regulated by CK2, at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. We present evidence, in two different CK2α knockout mouse lines, that this regulation is region-specific, with the 5-HT4 receptor upregulated in prefrontal cortex (PFC) but not striatum or hippocampus where CK2α is also ablated. 5-HT4 receptor signaling is enhanced in vitro, as evidenced by enhanced cAMP production or receptor plasma membrane localization in the presence of CK2 inhibitor or shRNA targeting CK2α. In vivo, 5-HT4 receptor signaling is also upregulated since ERK activation is elevated and sensitive to the inverse agonist, GR113808 in the PFC of CK2α KO mice. Behaviorally, KO mice as well as mice with AAV-mediated deletion of CK2α in the PFC show a robust 'anti-depressed-like' phenotype and display an enhanced response to antidepressant treatment when tested in paradigms for mood and anxiety. Importantly, it is sufficient to overexpress the 5-HT4 receptor in the mPFC to generate mice with a similar 'anti-depressed-like' phenotype. Our findings identify the mPFC as the region that mediates the effect of enhanced 5-HT4 receptor activity and CK2 as modulator of 5-HT4 receptor levels in this brain region that regulates mood-related phenotypes.

We have previously shown that casein kinase 2 (CK2) negatively regulates dopamine D1 and adenosine A2Areceptor signaling in the striatum. Ablation of CK2 in D1 receptor-positive striatal neurons caused enhanced locomotion and exploration at baseline, whereas CK2 ablation in D2 receptor-positive neurons caused increased locomotion after treatment with A2Aantagonist, caffeine. Because both, D1 and A2Areceptors, play major roles in the cellular responses tol-DOPA in the striatum, these findings prompted us to examine the impact of CK2 ablation on the effects ofl-DOPA treatment in the unilateral 6-OHDA lesioned mouse model of Parkinson's disease. We report here that knock-out of CK2 in striatonigral neurons reduces the severity ofl-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID), a finding that correlates with lowered pERK but unchanged pPKA substrate levels in D1 medium spiny neurons as well as in cholinergic interneurons. In contrast, lack of CK2 in striatopallidal neurons enhances LID and ERK phosphorylation. Coadministration of caffeine with a low dose ofl-DOPA reduces dyskinesia in animals with striatopallidal knock-out to wild-type levels, suggesting a dependence on adenosine receptor activity. We also detect reduced Golflevels in the striatonigral but not in the striatopallidal knock-out in response tol-DOPA treatment.Our work shows, in a rodent model of PD, that treatment-induced dyskinesia and striatal ERK activation are bidirectionally modulated by ablating CK2 in D1- or D2-positive projection neurons, in male and female mice. The results reveal that CK2 regulates signaling events critical to LID in each of the two main populations of striatal neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTTo date,l-DOPA is the most effective treatment for PD. Over time, however, its efficacy decreases, and side effects includingl-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) increase, affecting up to 78% of patients within 10 years of therapy (Hauser et al., 2007). It is understood that supersensitivity of the striatonigral pathway underlies LID, however, D2 agonists were also shown to induce LID (Bezard et al., 2001; Delfino et al., 2004). Our work implicates a novel player in the expression of LID, the kinase CK2: knock-out of CK2 in striatonigral and striatopallidal neurons has opposing effects on LID. The bidirectional modulation of dyskinesia reveals a central role for CK2 in striatal physiology and indicates that both pathways contribute to LID.

The serotonin 4 receptor, 5-HT4R, represents one of seven different serotonin receptor families and is implicated in a variety of physiological functions and their pathophysiological variants, such as mood and depression or anxiety, food intake and obesity or anorexia, or memory and memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease. Its central nervous system expression pattern in the forebrain, in particular in caudate putamen, the hippocampus and to lesser extent in the cortex, predispose it for a role in executive function and reward-related actions. In rodents, regional overexpression or knockdown in the prefrontal cortex or the nucleus accumbens of 5-HT4R was shown to impact mood and depression-like phenotypes, food intake and hypophagia; however, whether expression changes are causally involved in the etiology of such disorders is not clear. In this context, more data are emerging, especially based on PET technology and the use of ligand tracers that demonstrate altered 5-HT4R expression in brain disorders in humans, confirming data stemming from post-mortem tissue and preclinical animal models. In this review, we would like to present the current knowledge of 5-HT4R expression in brain regions relevant to mood/depression, reward and executive function with a focus on 5-HT4R expression changes in brain disorders or caused by drug treatment, at both the transcript and protein levels.

Protein kinase CK2 has received a surge of attention in recent years due to the evidence of its overexpression in a variety of solid tumors and multiple myelomas as well as its participation in cell survival pathways. CK2 is also upregulated in the most prevalent and aggressive cancer of brain tissue, glioblastoma multiforme, and in preclinical models, pharmacological inhibition of the kinase has proven successful in reducing tumor size and animal mortality. CK2 is highly expressed in the mammalian brain and has many bona fide substrates that are crucial in neuronal or glial homeostasis and signaling processes across synapses. Full and conditional CK2 knockout mice have further elucidated the importance of CK2 in brain development, neuronal activity, and behavior. This review will discuss recent advances in the field that point to CK2 as a regulator of neuronal functions and as a potential novel target to treat neurological and psychiatric disorders.

International audience; The interaction of glutamate and dopamine in the striatum is heavily dependent on signaling pathways that converge on the regulatory protein DARPP-32. The efficacy of dopamine/D1 receptor/PKA signaling is regulated by DARPP-32 phosphorylated at Thr-34 (the PKA site), a process that inhibits protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and potentiates PKA action. Activation of dopamine/D1 receptor/PKA signaling also leads to dephosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Ser-97 (the CK2 site), leading to localization of phospho-Thr-34 DARPP-32 in the nucleus where it also inhibits PP1. In this study the role of glutamate in the regulation of DARPP-32 phosphorylation at four major sites was further investigated. Experiments using striatal slices revealed that glutamate decreased the phosphorylation states of DARPP-32 at Ser-97 as well as Thr-34, Thr-75, and Ser-130 by activating NMDA or AMPA receptors in both direct and indirect pathway striatal neurons. The effect of glutamate in decreasing Ser-97 phosphorylation was mediated by activation of PP2A. In vitro phosphatase assays indicated that the PP2A/PR72 heterotrimer complex was likely responsible for glutamate/Ca2+-regulated dephosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Ser-97. As a consequence of Ser-97 dephosphorylation, glutamate induced the nuclear localization in cultured striatal neurons of dephospho-Thr-34/dephospho-Ser-97 DARPP-32. It also reduced PKA-dependent DARPP-32 signaling in slices and in vivo Taken together, the results suggest that by inducing dephosphorylation of DARPP-32 at Ser-97 and altering its cytonuclear distribution, glutamate may counteract dopamine/D1 receptor/PKA signaling at multiple cellular levels.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate virtually all physiological functions including the release of insulin from pancreatic β-cells. β-Cell M3 muscarinic receptors (M3Rs) are known to play an essential role in facilitating insulin release and maintaining proper whole-body glucose homeostasis. As is the case with other GPCRs, M3R activity is regulated by phosphorylation by various kinases, including GPCR kinases and casein kinase 2 (CK2). At present, it remains unknown which of these various kinases are physiologically relevant for the regulation of β-cell activity. In the present study, we demonstrate that inhibition of CK2 in pancreatic β-cells, knockdown of CK2α expression, or genetic deletion of CK2α in β-cells of mutant mice selectively augmented M3R-stimulated insulin release in vitro and in vivo. In vitro studies showed that this effect was associated with an M3R-mediated increase in intracellular calcium levels. Treatment of mouse pancreatic islets with CX4945, a highly selective CK2 inhibitor, greatly reduced agonist-induced phosphorylation of β-cell M3Rs, indicative of CK2-mediated M3R phosphorylation. We also showed that inhibition of CK2 greatly enhanced M3R-stimulated insulin secretion in human islets. Finally, CX4945 treatment protected mice against diet-induced hyperglycemia and glucose intolerance in an M3R-dependent fashion. Our data demonstrate, for the first time to our knowledge, the physiological relevance of CK2 phosphorylation of a GPCR and suggest the novel concept that kinases acting on β-cell GPCRs may represent novel therapeutic targets.

Background. In a combined animal and human study, we have previously found that a 5-day treatment that enhances cortical plasticity also facilitates brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB) signaling and increases activated TrkB and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) association in both the cortex and the peripheral lymphocytes. Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD), in general, show decreased cortical plasticity, as demonstrated by electrophysiological and behavioral studies. Here, we test the hypothesis that an exercise program that improves motor function and seems to slow down symptom progression can enhance BDNF-TrkB signaling in lymphocytes. Methods. A total of 16 patients with PD underwent a 4-week multidisciplinary intensive rehabilitation treatment (MIRT), which included aerobic training and physical and occupational therapy. Blood was collected before and after 2 and 4 weeks of MIRT. Lymphocytes were isolated to examine BDNF-TrkB signaling induced by incubation with recombinant human BDNF. TrkB signaling complexes, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase-2 and protein-kinase-B were immunoprecipitated; the content of immunocomplexes was determined by Western blotting. Results. After MIRT, all patients showed improvement in motor function. TrkB interaction with NMDAR and BDNF-TrkB signaling increased in peripheral lymphocytes at receptor, intracellular mediator, and downstream levels. The decrements in Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale II (UPDRSII) and total scores were significantly correlated with the increases in TrkB signaling at receptor, intracellular mediator, and NMDAR interaction levels. Conclusions. The significant correlation between reduced UPDRS scores and the changes in lymphocyte activity suggest that enhanced BDNF-TrkB signaling in lymphocyte and reduced severity of PD symptoms may be related.

Ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) is activated by an array of mitogenic stimuli and is a key player in the regulation of cell growth. The activation process of S6 kinase involves a complex and sequential series of multiple Ser/Thr phosphorylations and is mainly mediated via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1) and mTor-dependent pathways. Upstream regulators of S6K, such as PDK1 and protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), are recruited to the membrane via their pleckstrin homology (PH) or protein-protein interaction domains. However, the mechanism of integration of S6K into a multi-enzyme complex around activated receptor tyrosine kinases is not clear. In the present study, we describe a specific interaction between S6K with receptor tyrosine kinases, such as platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR). The interaction with PDGFR is mediated via the kinase or the kinase extension domain of S6K. Complex formation is inducible by growth factors and leads to S6K tyrosine phosphorylation. Using PDGFR mutants, we have shown that the phosphorylation is exerted via a PDGFR-src pathway. Furthermore, src kinase phosphorylates and coimmunoprecipitates with S6K in vivo. Inhibitors towards tyrosine kinases, such as genistein and PP1, or src-specific SU6656, but not PI3K and mTor inhibitors, lead to a reduction in tyrosine phosphorylation of S6K. In addition, we mapped the sites of tyrosine phosphorylation in S6K1 and S6K2 to Y39 and Y45, respectively. Mutational and immunofluorescent analysis indicated that phosphorylation of S6Ks at these sites does not affect their activity or subcellular localization. Our data indicate that S6 kinase is recruited into a complex with RTKs and src and becomes phosphorylated on tyrosine/s in response to PDGF or serum.

Insulin-like growth factors elicit many responses through activation of phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI3K). The tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC1-2) suppresses cell growth by negatively regulating a protein kinase, p70S6K (S6K1), which generally requires PI3K signals for its activation. Here, we show that TSC1-2 is required for insulin signaling to PI3K. TSC1-2 maintains insulin signaling to PI3K by restraining the activity of S6K, which when activated inactivates insulin receptor substrate (IRS) function, via repression of IRS-1 gene expression and via direct phosphorylation of IRS-1. Our results argue that the low malignant potential of tumors arising from TSC1-2 dysfunction may be explained by the failure of TSC mutant cells to activate PI3K and its downstream effectors.

The ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) belongs to the AGC family of Ser/Thr kinases and is known to be involved in the regulation of protein synthesis and the G(1)/S transition of the cell cycle. There are two forms of S6K, termed S6Kalpha and S6Kbeta, which have cytoplasmic and nuclear splice variants. Nucleocytoplasmic shuttling has been recently proposed for S6Kalpha, based on the use of the nuclear export inhibitor, leptomycin B. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating subcellular localization of S6Ks in response to mitogenic stimuli remain to be elucidated. Here we present data on the in vitro and in vivo phosphorylation of S6Kbeta, but not S6Kalpha, by protein kinase C (PKC). The site of phosphorylation was identified as S486, which is located within the C-terminal nuclear localization signal. Mutational analysis and the use of phosphospecific antibodies provided evidence that PKC-mediated phosphorylation at S486 does not affect S6K activity but eliminates the function of its nuclear localization signal and causes retention of an activated form of the kinase in the cytoplasm. Taken together, this study uncovers a novel mechanism for the regulation of nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of S6KbetaII by PKC-mediated phosphorylation.

Coenzyme A functions as a carrier of acetyl and acyl groups in living cells and is essential for numerous biosynthetic, energy-yielding, and degradative metabolic pathways. There are five enzymatic steps in CoA biosynthesis. To date, molecular cloning of enzymes involved in the CoA biosynthetic pathway in mammals has been only reported for pantothenate kinase. In this study, we present cDNA cloning and functional characterization of CoA synthase. It has an open reading frame of 563 aa and encodes a protein of ∼60 kDa. Sequence alignments suggested that the protein possesses both phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase and dephospho-CoA kinase domains. Biochemical assays using wild type recombinant protein confirmed the gene product indeed contained both these enzymatic activities. The presence of intrinsic phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase activity was further confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis. Therefore, this study describes the first cloning and characterization of a mammalian CoA synthase and confirms this is a bifunctional enzyme containing the last two components of CoA biosynthesis.

Background Dopamine, crucial for the regulation of motor function and reward, acts through receptors mainly expressed in striatum as well as cortex. Dysregulation of dopaminergic signaling is associated with various neuropsychiatric disorders. Consequently, dopamine-regulating drugs are effectively used in treating these disorders, such as L-DOPA for Parkinson's disease, methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or antipsychotics for schizophrenia. As a result, there has been much interest in dissecting signaling networks in the two morphologically indistinguishable D1- and D2-receptor-expressing medium spiny neurons. Our previous results highlighted a role for casein kinase 2 (CK2) in the modulation of dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) signaling in cells. Methods To study the importance of CK2 in vivo, we have selectively knocked out CK2, in either D1- or D2-medium spiny neurons (MSNs) and characterized the mice behaviorally and biochemically ( n = 4–18). Results The D1-MSN knockout mice exhibited distinct behavioral phenotypes including novelty-induced hyperlocomotion and exploratory behavior, defective motor control, and motor learning. All of these behavioral traits are indicative of dysregulated dopamine signaling and the underlying mechanism appears to be an alteration of D1R signaling. In support of this hypothesis, D1R levels were upregulated in the knockout mice, as well as phosphorylation of DARPP-32 (dopamine- and cyclic adenosine monophosphate [cAMP]-regulated phospho-protein of 32 kDa), most of the behavioral phenotypes were abolished by the D1R antagonist, SCH23390, and the D2-MSN knockout mice displayed no obvious behavioral phenotype. Conclusions A single kinase, CK2, in D1-MSNs significantly alters dopamine signaling, a finding that could have therapeutic implications for disorders characterized by dopamine imbalance such as Parkinson's disease, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia.

CK2 is a heterotetrameric ubiquitous kinase consisting of two catalytic subunits and two regulatory subunits. The two catalytic subunits, α and α', are highly homologous but differ in their C-terminal regions. It is not known whether CK2α and α' have distinctive substrate specificity, since no α- or α'-specific substrate has been identified. Thus, it is assumed that the two kinase isoforms overlap in their substrate specificity. CK2 protein levels and activity were found to be elevated in the brain when compared to other organs. Here we have studied the protein levels of CK2α and α' isoforms in nine major brain regions. We found that both, CK2α and α', are expressed in all brain regions tested. Whereas CK2α levels do not vary strongly across the regions, CK2α' levels are slightly higher in the cortex and hippocampus than in other regions. Furthermore, we show that CK2α protein levels in the striatum are relatively high when compared to CK2α'. The approximate stoichiometry ratio of CK2α:CK2α' is 8:1. Therefore, one can consider that CK2α levels are predominant in comparison to CK2α' levels throughout the mammalian brain.

Dopamine neurotransmission controls motor and perseverative behavior, is mediated by protein phosphorylation, and may be perturbed in disorders of attention and hyperactivity. To assess the role of casein kinase I (CK1) in the regulation of dopamine signaling, we generated a genetically modified mouse line that overexpresses CK1delta (CK1delta OE) specifically in the forebrain. Overexpression was confirmed both at the mRNA and at the protein levels. Under basal conditions, CK1delta OE mice exhibited horizontal and vertical hyperactivity, reduced anxiety, and nesting behavior deficiencies. The CK1delta OE mice also presented paradoxical responses to dopamine receptor stimulation, showing hypoactivity following injection of d-amphetamine or methylphenidate, indicating that CK1 activity has a profound effect on dopamine signaling in vivo. Interestingly, CK1delta overexpression led to significantly reduced D1R and D2R dopamine receptor levels. All together, under basal conditions and in response to drug stimulation, the behavioral phenotype of CK1delta OE mice is reminiscent of the symptoms and drug responses observed in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and therefore the CK1delta OE mice appear to be a model for this disorder.

We present evidence, using biochemical and cellular approaches, that the kinase, CK2, negatively controls signaling via Gα s (or Gα olf ) coupled to dopamine D1 and adenosine A2A receptors. Pharmacological inhibition of CK2 or CK2 knockdown by RNAi lead to elevated cAMP levels in dopamine D1 receptor-activated neuroblastoma cells. Phosphorylation levels of protein kinase A substrates were increased in the presence of CK2 inhibitors in mouse striatal slices. The effect of D1 receptor and A2A receptor agonists on the phosphorylation of protein kinase A sites was potentiated upon CK2 inhibition. Furthermore, in cell lines, we observed that reduction in CK2 activity, pharmacologically or genetically, reduced the amount of D1 receptor that was internalized in response to dopamine. Finally, the β subunit of CK2 was found to interact specifically with the Gα s subunit through protein interaction analyses. Thus CK2 can inhibit G protein-coupled receptor action by enabling faster receptor internalization, possibly through a direct association with Gα s .

Coenzyme A functions as a carrier of acetyl and acyl groups in living cells and is essential for numerous biosynthetic, energy-yielding, and degradative metabolic pathways. There are five enzymatic steps in CoA biosynthesis. To date, molecular cloning of enzymes involved in the CoA biosynthetic pathway in mammals has been only reported for pantothenate kinase. In this study, we present cDNA cloning and functional characterization of CoA synthase. It has an open reading frame of 563 aa and encodes a protein of approximately 60 kDa. Sequence alignments suggested that the protein possesses both phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase and dephospho-CoA kinase domains. Biochemical assays using wild type recombinant protein confirmed the gene product indeed contained both these enzymatic activities. The presence of intrinsic phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase activity was further confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis. Therefore, this study describes the first cloning and characterization of a mammalian CoA synthase and confirms this is a bifunctional enzyme containing the last two components of CoA biosynthesis.