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This study investigates the role of interactive sea surface temperature (SST) in the early development of aggregated convection using a vector vorticity equation cloud‐resolving model coupled to a slab ocean. The simulations are initialized by a mock Walker circulation driven by initial SST gradient in the elongated x axis, with an average of 300 K and sinusoidal variation of amplitude ranging from 1.5 to 3 K. According to large‐scale perturbation strength, which is caused by SST variation, the results can be divided into two groups. Under weak perturbation, convection‐SST feedback efficiently eliminates SST gradient and moisture anomaly. The large‐scale environment is homogenized within 2 days. Even though SST in the group with stronger perturbation undergoes a similar process, significant moist static energy (MSE) advection in the boundary produces enough moisture difference to introduce virtual temperature effect and aggregation is triggered. Once dry zone starts to expand, radiative and convective effects regenerate SST gradient, which intensifies circulation and accelerates the process. We further show that the evolution of aggregation or not is captured by the trend of MSE‐EIS (estimated inversion strength) variance. The results highlight the boundary layer processes on the formation of aggregated convection in the tropics.

The development of a unified similarity scaling has so far failed over complex surfaces, as scaling studies show large deviations from the empirical formulations developed over flat and horizontally homogeneous terrain as well as large deviations between the different complex terrain data sets. However, a recent study of turbulence anisotropy for flat and horizontally homogeneous terrain has shown that separating the data according to the limiting states of anisotropy (isotropic, two‐component axisymmetric and one‐component turbulence) improves near‐surface scaling. In this paper we explore whether this finding can be extended to turbulence over inclined and horizontally heterogeneous surfaces by examining near‐surface scaling for 12 different data sets obtained over terrain ranging from flat to mountainous. Although these data sets show large deviations in scaling when all anisotropy types are examined together, the separation according to the limiting states of anisotropy significantly improves the collapse of data onto common scaling relations, indicating the possibility of a unified framework for turbulence scaling. A measure of turbulence complexity is developed, and the causes for the breakdown of scaling and the physical mechanisms behind the turbulence complexity encountered over complex terrain are identified and shown to be related to the distance to the isotropic state, prevalence of directional shear with height in mountainous terrain, and the deviations from isotropy in the inertial subrange., Key Points A pathway toward a unified theory of near‐surface atmospheric turbulence is providedThe separation according to the limiting states of anisotropy significantly improves the collapse of data onto common scaling relationsPhysical processes responsible for turbulence complexity are identified

Anthropogenic emissions were greatly constrained during COVID‐19 lockdown in China. Nevertheless, observations still showed high loadings of fine particles (PM2.5) over northern China with secondary aerosols increasing by 15 μg/m3 yet a ∼10% drop in light‐absorbing black carbon (BC). Such a chemical transition in aerosol composition tended to make the atmosphere more scattering, indicated by satellite‐retrieved aerosol absorption optical depth falling by 60%. Comparison between weather forecast and radiosonde observations illustrated that, without upper‐level heating induced by BC, the stabilized stratification diminished, which was conducive for planetary boundary layer (PBL) mixing and thus near‐surface pollution dispersion. Furthermore, coupled dynamic‐chemistry simulations estimated that emission reduction during the lockdown weakened aerosol‐PBL interaction and thus a reduction of 25 μg/m3 (∼50%) in PM2.5 enhancement. Based on the unique natural experiment, this work observationally confirmed and numerically quantified the importance of BC‐induced meteorological feedback, further highlighting the priority of BC control in haze mitigation., Key Points Heavy haze still engulfed northern China despite great emission reductions during COVID‐19 lockdownEnhanced secondary aerosols and decreased black carbon (BC) led to a more scattering atmosphere and weakened aerosol‐planetary boundary layer interactionObservational evidences and quantitative modeling confirmed the importance of BC during the unique natural experiment

Motivated by an observed relationship between marine low cloud cover and surface wind speed, this study investigates how vertical wind shear affects trade‐wind cumulus convection, including shallow cumulus and congestus with tops below the freezing level. We ran large‐eddy simulations for an idealized case of trade‐wind convection using different vertical shears in the zonal wind. Backward shear, whereby surface easterlies become upper westerlies, is effective at limiting vertical cloud development, which leads to a moister, shallower, and cloudier trade‐wind layer. Without shear or with forward shear, shallow convection tends to deepen more, but clouds tops are still limited under forward shear. A number of mechanisms explain the observed behavior: First, shear leads to different surface wind speeds and, in turn, surface heat and moisture fluxes due to momentum transport, whereby the weakest surface wind speeds develop under backward shear. Second, a forward shear profile in the subcloud layer enhances moisture aggregation and leads to larger cloud clusters, but only on large domains that generally support cloud organization. Third, any absolute amount of shear across the cloud layer limits updraft speeds by enhancing the downward oriented pressure perturbation force. Backward shear—the most typical shear found in the winter trades—can thus be argued a key ingredient at setting the typical structure of the trade‐wind layer., Key Points Shear in the zonal wind influences cloud‐top heights via the effect of momentum transport on the surface wind and surface fluxesBackward shear (surface easterlies turn westerlies) lowers cloud tops and shallows and moistens the trade‐wind layerAny absolute amount of wind shear limits in‐cloud updraft speeds and enhances low‐level cloud fraction

After the 2020 Lunar New Year, the Chinese government implemented a strict nationwide lockdown to inhibit the spread of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Despite the abrupt decreases in gaseous emissions caused by record‐low anthropogenic activities, severe haze pollution occurred in northern China during the COVID lockdown. This paradox has attracted the attention of both the public and the scientific community. By analyzing comprehensive measurements of air pollutants, planetary boundary layer (PBL) height, and surface meteorology, we show that the severe air pollution episode over northern China coincided with the abnormally low PBL height, which had reduced by 45%, triggering strong aerosol‐PBL interactions. After dynamical processes initiated the temperature inversion, the Beijing metropolitan area experienced a period with continuously shallow PBLs during the lockdown. This unprecedented event provided an experiment showcasing the role of meteorology, in particular, aerosol‐PBL interactions in affecting air quality., Key Points Based on nationwide observations, variations in air pollution and meteorology are discussed during the COVID lockdown.The severe air pollution during the lockdown coincided with abnormally shallow PBL triggering strong aerosol‐PBL interactions.Beijing experienced a period with continuously shallow PBLs initiated by dynamical processes, which warrant the formation of haze event.

It is well known that subtropical shallow convection transports heat and water vapor upwards from the surface. It is less clear if it also transports horizontal momentum upwards to significantly affect the trade winds in which it is embedded. We utilize unique multiday large‐eddy simulations run over the tropical Atlantic with ICON‐LEM to investigate the character of shallow convective momentum transport (CMT). For a typical trade‐wind profile during boreal winter, CMT acts as an apparent friction to decelerate the north‐easterly flow. This effect maximizes below the cloud base while in the cloud layer, friction is very small, although present over a relatively deep layer. In the cloud layer, the zonal component of the momentum flux is counter‐gradient and penetrates deeper than reported in traditional shallow cumulus LES cases. The transport through conditionally sampled convective updrafts and downdrafts explains a weak friction effect, but not the counter‐gradient flux near the cloud tops. The analysis of the momentum flux budget reveals that, in the cloud layer, the counter‐gradient flux is driven by convectively triggered nonhydrostatic pressure‐gradients and horizontal circulations surrounding the clouds. A model set‐up with large domain size and realistic boundary conditions is necessary to resolve these effects., Key Points Shallow convective momentum transport decelerates northeasterly trade winds below cloud base and favors nonlocal, counter‐gradient momentum flux near cloud‐topsThe counter‐gradient momentum transport is arbitrated by horizontal circulations surrounding the clouds driven by cross‐cloud pressure gradientsAnalysis of conditional sampling through clouds confirm their small contribution to counter‐gradient fluxes and a so‐called “cumulus friction”

The goal of this study is to understand the mechanisms controlling the isotopic composition of the water vapor near the surface of tropical oceans, at the scale of about a hundred kilometers and a month. In the tropics, it has long been observed that the isotopic compositions of rain and vapor near the surface are more depleted when the precipitation rate is high. This is called the “amount effect.” Previous studies, based on observations or models with parameterized convection, have highlighted the roles of deep convective and mesoscale downdrafts and rain evaporation. But the relative importance of these processes has never been quantified. We hypothesize that it can be quantified using an analytical model constrained by large‐eddy simulations. Results from large‐eddy simulations confirm that the classical amount effect can be simulated only if precipitation rate changes result from changes in the large‐scale circulation. We find that the main process depleting the water vapor compared to the equilibrium with the ocean is the fact that updrafts stem from areas where the water vapor is more enriched. The main process responsible for the amount effect is the fact that when the large‐scale ascent increases, isotopic vertical gradients are steeper, so that updrafts and downdrafts deplete the subcloud layer more efficiently., Key Points The precipitation is more depleted when the precipitation rate is higher only if it is associated with stronger large‐scale ascentUpdrafts are responsible for most of the depletion of the near‐surface water vapor relative to equilibrium with the oceanWith large‐scale ascent, the near‐surface water vapor is more depleted because updrafts export enriched water more efficiently

Trade‐wind clouds exhibit a large diversity of spatial organizations at the mesoscale. Over the tropical western Atlantic, a recent study has visually identified four prominent mesoscale patterns of shallow convection, referred to as flowers, fish, gravel, and sugar. We show that these four patterns can be identified objectively from satellite observations by analyzing the spatial distribution of infrared brightness temperatures. By applying this analysis to 19 years of data, we examine relationships between cloud patterns and large‐scale environmental conditions. This investigation reveals that on daily and interannual timescales, the near‐surface wind speed and the strength of the lower‐tropospheric stability discriminate the occurrence of the different organization patterns. These results, combined with the tight relationship between cloud patterns, low‐level cloud amount, and cloud‐radiative effects, suggest that the mesoscale organization of shallow clouds might change under global warming. The role of shallow convective organization in determining low‐cloud feedback should thus be investigated., Key Points Prominent mesoscale patterns of shallow convection are identified from satellite observationsMesoscale patterns exhibit strong relationships with surface wind speed and lower‐tropospheric stabilityOwing to their differences in low‐cloud fraction, mesoscale patterns exert different impacts on the top‐of‐atmosphere radiation budget

The strength and structure of the Earth's magnetic field is gradually changing. During the next 50 years the dipole moment is predicted to decrease by ∼3.5%, with the South Atlantic Anomaly expanding, deepening, and continuing to move westward, while the magnetic dip poles move northwestward. We used simulations with the Thermosphere‐Ionosphere‐Electrodynamics General Circulation Model to study how predicted changes in the magnetic field will affect the climate of the thermosphere‐ionosphere system from 2015 to 2065. The global mean neutral density in the thermosphere is expected to increase slightly, by up to 1% on average or up to 2% during geomagnetically disturbed conditions ( Kp≥4). This is due to an increase in Joule heating power, mainly in the Southern Hemisphere. Global mean changes in total electron content (TEC) range from −3% to +4%, depending on season and UT. However, regional changes can be much larger, up to about ±35% in the region of ∼45°S to 45°N and 110°W to 0°W during daytime. Changes in the vertical E→×B→ drift are the most important driver of changes in TEC, although other plasma transport processes also play a role. A reduction in the low‐latitude upward E→×B→ drift weakens the equatorial ionization anomaly in the longitude sector of ∼105–60°W, manifesting itself as a local increase in electron density over Jicamarca (12.0°S, 76.9°W). The predicted increase in neutral density associated with main magnetic field changes is very small compared to observed trends and other trend drivers, but the predicted changes in TEC could make a significant contribution to observationally detectable trends., Key Points Predicted magnetic field changes from 2015 to 2065 cause a very minor (up to 1–2%) increase in global mean thermosphere neutral densityEffects on total electron content are larger, up to ±35% in the American sector ( ∼45°S to 45°N, 110°W to 0°W)Reduced vertical E→×B→ drifts at Jicamarca and surrounding longitudes ( ∼105–60°W) cause a weakening of the equatorial ionization anomaly

Cold pools influence convective initiation and organization, dust lofting, and boundary layer properties, but little is known about their interactions with the land surface, particularly in dry continental environments. In this study, two‐way cold pool‐land surface interactions are investigated using high‐resolution idealized simulations of an isolated, transient cold pool evolving in a dry convective boundary layer. Results using a fully interactive land surface demonstrate that sensible heat fluxes are suppressed at the center of the cold pool but enhanced at the edge due to the spatial patterns of land surface cooling and the air temperature and wind speed perturbations. This leads to cold pool dissipation from the edge inward. Latent heat fluxes are primarily suppressed within the cold pool, and the magnitude of this suppression is controlled by competition between atmospheric and land surface effects. By comparing the fully interactive land surface simulation to a simulation with imposed surface fluxes, the land surface‐cold pool feedbacks are shown to reduce the cold pool lifetime, extent, and intensity by up to 50% and influence the pattern of boundary layer turbulent kinetic energy recovery, which have significant implications for cold pool‐induced convective initiation., Key Points An isolated cold pool evolving in a dry convective boundary layer is simulated at high resolutionSensible heat fluxes are enhanced at the cold pool's edge and suppressed in the center, leading to dissipation from the edge inwardLand surface interactions reduce the cold pool lifetime, area, and intensity by up to 50% and affect the boundary layer evolution

Stratocumulus clouds are the most common type of boundary layer cloud; their radiative effects strongly modulate climate. Large eddy simulations (LES) of stratocumulus clouds often struggle to maintain fidelity to observations because of the sharp gradients occurring at the entrainment interfacial layer at the cloud top. The challenge posed to LES by stratocumulus clouds is evident in the wide range of solutions found in the LES intercomparison based on the DYCOMS‐II field campaign, where simulated liquid water paths for identical initial and boundary conditions varied by a factor of nearly 12. Here we revisit the DYCOMS‐II RF01 case and show that the wide range of previous LES results can be realized in a single LES code by varying only the numerical treatment of the equations of motion and the nature of subgrid‐scale (SGS) closures. The simulations that maintain the greatest fidelity to DYCOMS‐II observations are identified. The results show that using weighted essentially non‐oscillatory (WENO) numerics for all resolved advective terms and no explicit SGS closure consistently produces the highest‐fidelity simulations. This suggests that the numerical dissipation inherent in WENO schemes functions as a high‐quality, implicit SGS closure for this stratocumulus case. Conversely, using oscillatory centered difference numerical schemes for momentum advection, WENO numerics for scalars, and explicitly modeled SGS fluxes consistently produces the lowest‐fidelity simulations. We attribute this to the production of anomalously large SGS fluxes near the cloud tops through the interaction of numerical error in the momentum field with the scalar SGS model., Key Points Fidelity of LES simulations of stratocumulus clouds depends on advection schemes and SGS closuresWENO schemes without explicit SGS closures simulate stratocumulus wellA simple model shows how advection schemes and SGS closures interact and affect cloud simulations

Very sparse data have previously limited observational studies of meteorological processes in the Sahara. We present an observed case of convectively driven water vapor transport crossing the Sahara over 2.5 days in June 2012, from the Sahel in the south to the Atlas in the north. A daily cycle is observed, with deep convection in the evening generating moist cold pools that fed the next day's convection; the convection then generated new cold pools, providing a vertical recycling of moisture. Trajectories driven by analyses were able to capture the direction of the transport but not its full extent, particularly at night when cold pools are most active, and analyses missed much of the water content of cold pools. The results highlight the importance of cold pools for moisture transport, dust and clouds, and demonstrate the need to include these processes in models in order to improve the representation of Saharan atmosphere., Key Points Observed case of convectively driven water vapor transport across the Sahara over 2.5 daysCycle of convection generating cold pools which feed next day's convection, enhancing transportAnalyses capture direction of transport but not its full extent due to missing cold pools

An observing network has been established along the United States west coast that provides up to 20 years of observations to support early warning, preparedness and studies of atmospheric rivers (ARs). The Hydrometeorology Testbed&ndash, West Legacy Observing Network, a suite of upper air and surface observing instruments, is now an official National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) observing system with real-time data access provided via publicly available websites. This regional network of wind profiling radars and co-located instruments also provides observations of boundary layer processes such as complex-terrain flows that are not well depicted in the current operational rawindsonde and radar networks, satellites, or in high-resolution models. Furthermore, wind profiling radars have been deployed ephemerally for projects or campaigns in other areas, some with long records of observations. Current research uses of the observing system data are described as well as experimental products and services being transitioned from research to operations and applications. We then explore other ways in which this network and data library provide valuable resources for the community beyond ARs, including evaluation of high-resolution numerical weather prediction models and diagnosis of systematic model errors. Other applications include studies of gap flows and other terrain-influenced processes, snow level, air quality, winds for renewable energy and the predictability of cloudiness for solar energy industry.

Unique in situ observations of atmospheric conditions over the Red Sea and the coastal Arabian Peninsula are examined to study the dynamics and regional impacts of the local land‐sea breeze cycle (LSBC). During a 26‐month data record spanning 2008–2011, observed LSBC events occurred year‐round, frequently exhibiting cross‐shore wind velocities in excess of 8 m/s. Observed onshore and offshore features of both the land‐ and sea‐breeze phases of the cycle are presented, and their seasonal modulation is considered. Weather Research and Forecasting climate downscaling simulations and satellite measurements are used to extend the analysis. In the model, the amplitude of the LSBC is significantly larger in the vicinity of the steeper terrain elements encircling the basin, suggesting an enhancement by the associated slope winds. Observed and simulated conditions also reflected distinct gravity‐current characteristics of the intrinsic moist marine air mass during both phases of the LSBC. Specifically, the advance and retreat of marine air mass was directly tied to the development of internal boundary layers onshore and offshore throughout the period of study. Convergence in the lateral moisture flux resulting from this air mass ascending the coastal topography (sea‐breeze phase) as well as colliding with air masses from the opposing coastline (land‐breeze phase) further resulted in cumulous cloud formation and precipitation., Key Points sea‐breeze observationsland‐sea‐air interactionsmesoscale moisture transport dynamics

Atmospheric observations of greenhouse gases provide essential information on sources and sinks of these key atmospheric constituents. To quantify fluxes from atmospheric observations, representation of transport—especially vertical mixing—is a necessity and often a source of error. We report on remotely sensed profiles of vertical aerosol distribution taken over a 2 year period in Pasadena, California. Using an automated analysis system, we estimate daytime mixing layer depth, achieving high confidence in the afternoon maximum on 51% of days with profiles from a Sigma Space Mini Micropulse LiDAR (MiniMPL) and on 36% of days with a Vaisala CL51 ceilometer. We note that considering ceilometer data on a logarithmic scale, a standard method, introduces, an offset in mixing height retrievals. The mean afternoon maximum mixing height is 770 m Above Ground Level in summer and 670 m in winter, with significant day‐to‐day variance (within season σ = 220m≈30%). Taking advantage of the MiniMPL's portability, we demonstrate the feasibility of measuring the detailed horizontal structure of the mixing layer by automobile. We compare our observations to planetary boundary layer (PBL) heights from sonde launches, North American regional reanalysis (NARR), and a custom Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model developed for greenhouse gas (GHG) monitoring in Los Angeles. NARR and WRF PBL heights at Pasadena are both systematically higher than measured, NARR by 2.5 times; these biases will cause proportional errors in GHG flux estimates using modeled transport. We discuss how sustained lidar observations can be used to reduce flux inversion error by selecting suitable analysis periods, calibrating models, or characterizing bias for correction in post processing., Key Points Aerosol lidar maps LA mixing depth in space (pilot mobile study) and time (2 years data)Automatic mixing depth retrieval system finds daily variability far exceeds seasonal differencePBL heights in models used for GHG monitoring show biases that will carry over to flux estimates

Climate and reanalysis models contain large water and energy budget errors over tropical land related to the misrepresentation of diurnally forced moist convection. Motivated by recent work suggesting that the water and energy budget is influenced by the sensitivity of the convective diurnal cycle to atmospheric state, this study investigates the relationship between convective intensity, the convective diurnal cycle, and atmospheric state in a region of frequent convection—the Amazon. Daily, 3‐hourly satellite observations of top of atmosphere (TOA) fluxes from Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Ed3a SYN1DEG and precipitation from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 3B42 data sets are collocated with twice daily Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive observations from 2002 to 2012 and hourly flux tower observations. Percentiles of daily minimum outgoing longwave radiation are used to define convective intensity regimes. The results indicate a significant increase in the convective diurnal cycle amplitude with increased convective intensity. The TOA flux diurnal phase exhibits 1–3 h shifts with convective intensity, and precipitation phase is less sensitive. However, the timing of precipitation onset occurs 2–3 h earlier and the duration lasts 3–5 h longer on very convective compared to stable days. While statistically significant changes are found between morning atmospheric state and convective intensity, variations in upper and lower tropospheric humidity exhibit the strongest relationships with convective intensity and diurnal cycle characteristics. Lastly, convective available potential energy (CAPE) is found to vary with convective intensity but does not explain the variations in Amazonian convection, suggesting that a CAPE‐based convective parameterization will not capture the observed behavior without incorporating the sensitivity of convection to column humidity., Key Points Amazon convective diurnal cycle characteristics vary with convective intensityColumn humidity is the most important factor explaining convective behaviorCAPE is a poor predictor of the Amazonian convective diurnal cycle

Based on the ARPS (Advanced Regional Prediction System) at 2 km grid spacing, the convective initiation (CI) of cells that evolved into a squall line on the southern flank of a Meiyu front in East China is investigated. The initiations of four convective cells, denoted CI-A through CI-D, are reasonably captured in the simulation. For CI-A and CI-B, locally enhanced convergence bands associated with boundary layer horizontal convective rolls (HCRs) play a crucial role in determining the exact locations of CIs, whereas a cold outflow boundary from earlier frontal precipitation contributes to additional convergence forcing. For CI-C, initiation occurs directly over the gust front, with the frontal convergence providing the main forcing. CI-D occurs south of and sufficiently far from the gust front, and is mainly forced by the HCR circulations. With surface heat flux turned off in the model, CI is much delayed. Therefore, surface heating increases the convective instability of air south of the front and causes the development of HCRs; it also enhances the gust front convergence by mixing higher southwesterly momentum toward the surface. When the condensation process is turned off, HCRs and/or gust frontal forcing are still able to lift the low-level air to super-saturation where CI is expected.

Large‐scale weather forecasting and climate models are beginning to reach horizontal resolutions of kilometers, at which common assumptions made in existing parameterization schemes of subgrid‐scale turbulence and convection—such as that they adjust instantaneously to changes in resolved‐scale dynamics—cease to be justifiable. Additionally, the common practice of representing boundary‐layer turbulence, shallow convection, and deep convection by discontinuously different parameterizations schemes, each with its own set of parameters, has contributed to the proliferation of adjustable parameters in large‐scale models. Here we lay the theoretical foundations for an extended eddy‐diffusivity mass‐flux (EDMF) scheme that has explicit time‐dependence and memory of subgrid‐scale variables and is designed to represent all subgrid‐scale turbulence and convection, from boundary layer dynamics to deep convection, in a unified manner. Coherent up and downdrafts in the scheme are represented as prognostic plumes that interact with their environment and potentially with each other through entrainment and detrainment. The more isotropic turbulence in their environment is represented through diffusive fluxes, with diffusivities obtained from a turbulence kinetic energy budget that consistently partitions turbulence kinetic energy between plumes and environment. The cross‐sectional area of up and downdrafts satisfies a prognostic continuity equation, which allows the plumes to cover variable and arbitrarily large fractions of a large‐scale grid box and to have life cycles governed by their own internal dynamics. Relatively simple preliminary proposals for closure parameters are presented and are shown to lead to a successful simulation of shallow convection, including a time‐dependent life cycle., Key Points An extended eddy‐diffusivity mass‐flux (EDMF) scheme is presented that is prognostic and has variable plume area fractionsThe new EDMF scheme consistently partitions flow variables (including turbulence kinetic energy) between plumes and the environmentIn first tests, it successfully reproduces the average condition and transient life cycles of shallow convection

Land surface albedo is a significant parameter for maintaining a balance in surface energy. It is also an important parameter of bare soil surface albedo for developing land surface process models that accurately reflect diurnal variation characteristics and the mechanism behind the solar spectral radiation albedo on bare soil surfaces and for understanding the relationships between climate factors and spectral radiation albedo. Using a data set of field observations, we conducted experiments to analyze the variation characteristics of land surface solar spectral radiation and the corresponding albedo over a typical Gobi bare soil underlying surface and to investigate the relationships between the land surface solar spectral radiation albedo, solar elevation angle, and soil moisture. Based on both solar elevation angle and soil moisture measurements simultaneously, we propose a new two‐factor parameterization scheme for spectral radiation albedo over bare soil underlying surfaces. The results of numerical simulation experiments show that the new parameterization scheme can more accurately depict the diurnal variation characteristics of bare soil surface albedo than the previous schemes. Solar elevation angle is one of the most important factors for parameterizing bare soil surface albedo and must be considered in the parameterization scheme, especially in arid and semiarid areas with low soil moisture content. This study reveals the characteristics and mechanism of the diurnal variation of bare soil surface solar spectral radiation albedo and is helpful in developing land surface process models, weather models, and climate models., Key Points Field observation experiment of surface solar spectral radiationThe impact of solar elevation angle and soil moisture on the diurnal variation characteristics of bare soil surface albedoSolar elevation angle is a significant factor of controlling the diurnal variation characteristics of bare soil surface albedo

I will present some use of Large-Eddy simulations that correspond to numerical simulations of shallow clouds or clear boundary layer where most of the processes are resolved. After, a first description of such simulation and their main advantages and drawbacks, I will detail how they can be used both for the understanding of boundary-layer processes and for the improvement of their representation in models. I will in particular detail a simulation of initiation of deep convection observed during the AMMA field campaign that occurs over West Africa. With such a simulation, we show the different processes leading to initiation of deep convection in this very dry environment not favorable to convection. I will also show how these simulations can be used to derive parametrization-oriented diagnostics that have been used to improve boundary-layer parametrizations.; Je présenterai quelques utilisations des simulations explicites type Large-Eddy Simulations qui correspondent à des simulations numériques de nuages ​​peu profonds ou de couche limite en ciel clair où la plupart des processus sont résolus. Après, une première description de ces simulations et de leurs principaux avantages et inconvénients, je détaillerai comment elles peuvent être utilisées à la fois pour la compréhension des processus de couche limite et pour l'amélioration de leur représentation dans les modèles. Je détaillerai notamment une simulation d'initiation de convection profonde observée lors de la campagne de terrain AMMA qui se déroule sur l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Avec une telle simulation, nous montrons les différents processus conduisant à l'initiation de la convection profonde dans cet environnement très sec peu favorable à la convection. Je montrerai également comment ces simulations peuvent être utilisées pour dériver des diagnostics orientés paramétrisation qui ont été utilisés pour améliorer les paramétrisations de la couche limite.

A recent intercomparison exercise proposed by the Working Group for Numerical Experimentation (WGNE) revealed that the parameterized, or unresolved, surface stress in weather forecast models is highly model‐dependent, especially over orography. Models of comparable resolution differ over land by as much as 20% in zonal mean total subgrid surface stress (τtot). The way τtot is partitioned between the different parameterizations is also model‐dependent. In this study, we simulated in a particular model an increase in τtot comparable with the spread found in the WGNE intercomparison. This increase was simulated in two ways, namely by increasing independently the contributions to τtot of the turbulent orographic form drag scheme (TOFD) and of the orographic low‐level blocking scheme (BLOCK). Increasing the parameterized orographic drag leads to significant changes in surface pressure, zonal wind and temperature in the Northern Hemisphere during winter both in 10 day weather forecasts and in seasonal integrations. However, the magnitude of these changes in circulation strongly depends on which scheme is modified. In 10 day forecasts, stronger changes are found when the TOFD stress is increased, while on seasonal time scales the effects are of comparable magnitude, although different in detail. At these time scales, the BLOCK scheme affects the lower stratosphere winds through changes in the resolved planetary waves which are associated with surface impacts, while the TOFD effects are mostly limited to the lower troposphere. The partitioning of τtot between the two schemes appears to play an important role at all time scales., Key Points: Parameterized orographic drag affects the Northern Hemisphere winter circulation at all time scalesThe partition of the surface stress between various parameterizations affects circulation aspects

The lower atmospheric boundary layer at Dome C on the Antarctic plateau has been continuously monitored along a 45-m tower since 2009. Two years of observations (2009 and 2010) are presented. A strong diurnal cycle is observed near the surface in summer but almost disappears at the top of the tower, indicating that the summer nocturnal inversion is very shallow. Very steep inversions reaching almost 1 °C m-1 on average along the tower are observed in winter. They are stronger and more frequent during the colder 2010 winter, reaching a maximum in a layer ~10-15 m above the surface. Winter temperature is characterized by strong synoptic variability. An extreme warm event occurred in July 2009. The temperature reached -30 °C, typical of midsummer weather. Meteorological analyses which agree with the observations near the surface confirm that heat is propagated downward from higher elevations. A high total water column indicates moist air masses aloft originating from the lower latitudes. The coldest temperatures and strongest inversions are associated with characteristic synoptic patterns and a particularly dry atmosphere. Measurement of moisture in the clean and cold Antarctic plateau atmosphere is a challenging task. Supersaturations are very likely but are not revealed by the observations. This is possibly an instrumental artifact that would affect other moisture measurements made in similar conditions. In spite of this, such observations offer a stringent test of the robustness of the polar boundary layer in meteorological and climate models, addressing a major concern raised in the IPCC 2007 report. Key-points Two years of continuous 45-m ABL observation at Dome C Antarctica Observed high interannual and synoptic variability and extreme inversions Supersaturation likely but not reported, common instrumental limitation ©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

International audience; So-called ‘dry’ microburst outflows are well known phenomena in desert environments when rain from moist convection aloft evaporates into deep, dry-adiabatic boundary layers. Extreme synoptic scale versions of this convective scale phenomenon have been documented in this study, in which the collective episodes of convective downdraft feed a common cold pool that expands as a gust front density current, raising large amount of dust in the boundary layer, and initiating new moist convection over the Sahara. Satellite observations from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infra-Red Imager (SEVIRI) and the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) combined with selected West African surface station observations have been integrated to study the gust front and its associated dust activity in the period of August 3-6, 2006. The meteorological conditions accompanying this event have been described using the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analyses. The gust front was initiated by a cluster of isolated cumulonimbus clouds over central Niger at 1400 UT on August 3 that lengthened to MCS size over Mali by the end of the day. At maximum expansion on August 5, the extending gust front exceeded 1500 km in length, with a transited area of lofted dust reaching a million square kilometers, mostly over southern Algeria and northern Mali. The northward gust front speed, estimated with SEVERI imagery, is rapid in initial stages but declines with time as the cold air absorbs heat from the hot desert surface and the gust front density contrast is diluted. The synoptic character of this event (both the length and the duration) allows for four intersections with CALIPSO orbits, thereby providing information on the evolution of the characteristics of the dusty gust front during its lifetime. Young dusty gust fronts (i.e. during the first 24 hours of the event) were characterized by lidar reflectivity at 532 nm in excess of 3 x 10-3 km-1 sr-1, temperature drops exceeding 10°C, 1 km visibility and their associated dense dust cloud reached 2 km in altitude. Older dusty gust fronts (i.e. from August 5 on) were associated with weaker lidar reflectivities (below 3 x 10-3 km-1 sr-1), same visibility conditions (~1km), temperature drops at the surface of about 5°C and their associated dust clouds reached higher altitudes (3-4 km). The northward transport of moisture over the Sahara desert associated with the northward excursion of the gust front was evident during this event. All gust front crossings were characterized by moisture increases at the surface. A large area (~400 km over longitude and 100 km over latitude) of high Water Vapor Mixing Ratios (up to 16 g kg-1) covered northeastern Mali and southwestern Algeria, confirming an impact at the synoptic scale. The pronounced northward propagation of the dusty gust front and its associated moisture is shown to have been favored by the presence of an active African Easterly Wave.

International audience; Three-dimensional mesoscale numerical simulations were performed over Niger in order to investigate dry cyclogenesis in the West African intertropical discontinuity (ITD) during the summer, when it is located over the Sahel. The implications of dry cyclogenesis on dust emission and transport over West Africa are also addressed using the model results, together with spaceborne observations from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infra-Red Imager (SEVIRI) and the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP). The study focuses on the case of 7-8 July 2006, during the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis (AMMA) Special Observing Period 2a1. Model results show the formation of three dry cyclones in the ITD during a 24-h period. Simulations are used to investigate the formation and the development of one of these cyclones over Niger in the lee of the Hoggar-Aïr Mountains. They show the development of the vortex to be associated with (1) strong horizontal shear and low-level convergence existing along the monsoon shearline and (2) enhanced northeasterly winds associated with orographic blocking of air masses from the Mediterranean Sea. The dry cyclone was apparent between 0700 and 1300 UTC in the simulation, and it was approximately 400 km wide and 1500 m deep. Potential vorticity in the center of vortex reached nearly 6 PVU at the end of the cyclogenesis period (1000 UTC). The role of the orography on cyclogenesis along the ITD was evaluated through model simulations without orography. The comparison of the characteristics of the vortex in the simulations with and without orography suggests that the orography plays a secondary but still important role in the formation of the cyclone. Orography and related flow splitting tend to create low-level jets in the lee of the Hoggar and Aïr mountains which, in turn, create conditions favorable for the onset of a better defined and more intense vortex in the ITD region. Moreover, orography blocking appears to favor the occurrence of a longer-lived cyclone. Furthermore, model results suggested that strong surface winds (∼11 m s−1) enhanced by the intensification of the vortex led to the emission of dust mass fluxes as large as 3 μg m−2 s−1. The mobilized dust was mixed upward to a height of 4-5 km to be made available for long-range transport. This study suggests that the occurrence of dry vortices in the ITD region may contribute significantly to the total dust activity over West Africa during summer. The distribution of dust over the Sahara-Sahel may be affected over areas and at time scales much larger than those associated with the cyclone itself.

The “flux, etat de la mer, et télédétection en conditions de fetch variable” (FETCH) was aimed at studying the physical processes associated with air–sea exchanges and mesoscale oceanic circulation in a coastal region dominated by frequent strong offshore winds. The experiment took place in March–April 1998 in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Lion). Observations were collected with the R/V L'Atalante, with an air–sea interaction spar (ASIS) buoy, with waverider buoys, and with research aircraft equipped for in situ and remote sensing measurements. The present paper is an introduction to the following special section, which groups 12 papers (including this one) presenting results on turbulent flux measurements at the ocean surface, on the behavior of the marine atmospheric boundary layer, on the ocean waves characteristics, on the ocean circulation, and on remote sensing of surface parameters. This overview presents the background and objectives of FETCH, the experimental setup and operations, and the dominant atmospheric and oceanic conditions and introduces the different papers of the special section.

International audience; Data from a recent field campaign are used to analyze the nonstationary aspects of air-sea heat exchanges and marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) thermodynamics over the Gulf of Lion (GoL) in connection with synoptic forcing. The data set includes measurements made from a wide range of platforms (sea-borne, airborne, and space-borne) as well as three-dimensional atmospheric modeling. The analysis focuses on the 24 March 1998 Tramontane/Mistral event. It is shown that the nonstationary nature of the wind regime over the GoL was controlled by the multistage evolution of an Alpine lee cyclone over the Tyrrhenian Sea (between Sardinia and continental Italy). In the early stage (low at 1014 hPa) the Tramontane flow prevailed over the GoL. As the low deepened (1010 hPa), the prevailing wind regime shifted to a well-established Mistral that peaked around 1200 UTC. In the afternoon the Mistral was progressively disrupted by a strengthening outflow coming from the Ligurian Sea in response to the deepening low over the Tyrrhenian Sea (1008 hPa) and the channelling induced by the presence of the Apennine range (Italy) and the Alps. In the evening the Mistral was again well established over the GoL as the depression continued to deepen (1002 hPa) but moved to the southeast, reducing the influence of outflow from the Ligurian Sea on the flow over the GoL. The air-sea heat exchanges and the structure of the MABL over the GoL were observed to differ significantly between the established Mistral period and the disrupted Mistral period. In the latter period, surface latent and sensible heat fluxes were reduced by a factor of 2, on average. During that latter period, air-sea moisture exchanges were mainly driven by dynamics, whereas during the former period, both winds and vertical moisture gradients controlled moisture exchanges. The MABL was shallower during the latter period (0.7 km instead of 1.2 km) because of reduced surface turbulent heat fluxes and increased wind shear at the top of the MABL in connection with the outflow from the Ligurian Sea. In the period of established Mistral, gravity waves above the MABL were observed to have an influence on the MABL structure. In the perturbed Mistral case this influence was not observed. Over the GoL the ubiquitous presence of sheltered regions (i.e., regions of reduced wind speed in the MABL) in the lee of the three major mountain ranges surrounding the GoL (namely, the Pyrénées, the Massif Central, and the Alps) was shown to have an impact on surface turbulent heat fluxes. The position of these sheltered regions, which evolved with the synoptic conditions, was the key to a correct interpretation of multiplatform surface turbulent flux measurements made over the GoL on 24 March 1998.

International audience; This paper focuses on the structure of the marine boundary layer in an convergence region between easterly (trade winds) and westerly flows, over the Subtropical South Atlantic Ocean on 15 September 1994 using an unprecedented combination of spaceborne and airborne lidar observations, airborne Radar Ocean Wave Spectrometer and dropsondes system, and three-dimensional modeling. Methodologies previously developed to determine the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) depth and cloud top heights from airborne lidar measurements are successfully applied to spaceborne measurements. Nested numerical simulations have been performed in this case study. It is shown that the MABL structure in this region (observed with lidar and simulated) collapsed dramatically in connection with a marked decrease of wind speed and near-zero turbulent kinetic energy due to specific synoptic conditions.

The article of record as published may be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JC000466 Basin-scale sea ice models are often run uncoupled to either an atmosphere or ocean model to evaluate the sea ice model, to compare different models, and to test changes in physical parameterizations. Such simulations require that the boundary forcing be specified. The specification of atmospheric forcing associated with the surface heat and freshwater fluxes has been done in various sea ice simulation using climatology, numerical weather prediction analyses, or and satellite data. However, the errors in the boundary forcing may be so large that it is difficult to determine whether discrepancies between simulated and observed properties of sea ice should be attributed to deficiencies in the sea ice model or to the boundary forcing. To assess the errors in boundary forcing, we use data from the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) to evaluate various data sets that have been used to provide boundary forcing for sea ice models that as associated with the surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The impact of errors in these data sets on a sea ice model is assessed by using a single-column ice thickness distribution mode, which is alternately forced with in situ measurements from SHEBA and output from large-scale analyses. Substantial discrepancies are found among the data sets. The response of the sea ice model to the different forcing data sets was considerable. This research was funded by several grants from NSF-OPP and by DOE ARM. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Shipboard radiosonde surveys were conducted during the 2003-04 winter east of Japan to study atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) structure over the Kuroshio Extension. ABL displayed large variations in vertical structure, most of which are attributable to changes in atmospheric surface stability. Where the surface atmosphere was unstable (neutral) as measured by the sea-air temperature difference, surface turbulent heat flux increased (decreased) and a mixed-layer developed (undeveloped) with weakened (intensified) vertical wind shear. A linear regression analysis indicates that ABL height tends to increase by 1km as the sea-air temperature difference increases by 7°C or surface turbulent heat flux by 500 Wm−2. While meridional thermal advection by weather disturbances seems to cause much of atmospheric stability variability during the 43-day surveys, the strong sensitivity of vertical mixing and wind shear to stability is consistent with the observed in-phase co-variability of SST and surface wind from satellite on monthly and longer timescales.

A description of the daily cycle of oceanic shallow cumulus for undisturbed boreal winter conditions in the North Atlantic trades is presented. Modern investigation tools are used, including storm‐resolving and large‐eddy simulations, runover large domains in realistic configurations, and observations from in situ measurements and satellite‐based retrievals. Models and observations clearly show pronounced diurnal variations in cloudiness, both near cloud base and below the trade inversion. The daily cycle reflects the evolution of two cloud populations: (i) a population of nonprecipitating small cumuli with weak vertical extent, which grows during the day and maximizes around sunset, and (ii) a population o deeper precipitating clouds with a stratiform cloud layer below the trade inversion, which grows during the night and maximizes just before sunrise. Previous studies have reported that cloudiness near cloud base undergoes weak variations on time scales longer than a day. However, here we find that it can vary strongly at the diurnal time scale. This daily cycle could serve as a critical test of the models' representation of the physical processes controlling cloudiness near cloud base, which is thought to be key for the determination of the Earth's climate response to warming., Key Points Trade wind cumuli exhibit a pronounced daily cycle, with an evening maximum near cloud base and a nighttime/dawn maximum near the inversionCloud‐base cloudiness during undisturbed periods can be much more variable at the diurnal than at longer time scalesThe representation of the daily cycle of inversion clouds is particularly sensitive to resolution

This study examines the relationships between marine stratocumulus clouds (MSC) coupling state with the ocean surface, their precipitation rate and fractional cloud cover (CF). This was possible by developing a novel methodology for satellite retrieval of the clouds coupling state. Decks of overcast MSC were reported in previous studies to break up often as their precipitation rate increases significantly, thus reducing CF and cloud radiative effect substantially. Here we show that decks of precipitating decoupled MSC have larger CF compared to similarly precipitating coupled MSC. The difference in CF between decoupled and coupled clouds was found to increase with precipitation rate, up to nearly doubling the CF of the heaviest precipitating decoupled MSC. This suggests that decoupling is a feature related to higher cloud radiative effect in precipitating MSC., Key Points A novel satellite‐based methodology for retrieving coupling state and thickness of marine warm clouds was developedPrecipitating decoupled marine stratocumulus have larger cloud fraction compared to similarly precipitating coupled marine stratocumulusThe coupling state is a potentially important factor in determining the clouds radiative effect