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•Monitoring of biomarkers reveal the exposure to AF, OTA and DON, mainly.•Biomarkers results in blood and urine give complementary exposure information.•Improved instrumental techniques enable multimycotoxin detection.•Few studies deal with simultaneous exposure to mycotoxins and other chemical hazards.•There is a need to include the mycotoxins in exposome approaches.

ABSTRACTThis paper analyses the determinants of the going public decision of the non-financial firms that were listed in the Spanish Continuous Market through an Initial Public Offering of shares (IPO) in the period 1997–2013. We employ series of characteristics related to the firms and the economic environment and logit regression methods in order to find the model that best fits the firms that went public, using the firms that could have gone public in the same period, but opted not to, as a control sample. In Spain, the firms that went public were characterized by being relatively larger and riskier than those that did not. In addition, their IPOs came after a period of investment and growth, although it does not appear that they intended to rebalance their financial structure or reduce their financial costs. Likewise, our results are robust across different sensitivity analyses. Our results suggest that Spanish IPO firms do not fit the Continental European model for going public. Therefore, it seems that differences between the Continental European and the Anglo-Saxon model are fading.

•Postharvest mycotoxins contamination represents a worldwide problem.•Predictive models on mycotoxin production in foods are scarce.•Luedeking-Piret, Baranyi, polynomial and logistic models are the main mathematical approaches.•A number of challenges need to be solved before they are applied in food safety management.

•Deoxynivalenol is not completely removed through wheat processing.•Milling and ozonation are the food processes with the highest deoxynivalenol reduction.•Deoxynivalenol can increase during breadmaking process, due to release from flour.•There is a high increase of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside during breadmaking process.•More information about deoxynivalenol degradation products is necessary.

Sorghum, which is consumed in Tunisia as human food, suffers from severe colonization by several toxigenic fungi and contamination by mycotoxins. The Tunisian climate is characterized by high temperature and humidity that stimulates mold proliferation and mycotoxin accumulation in foodstuffs. This study investigated the effects of temperature (15, 25 and 37°C), water activity (aw, between 0.85 and 0.99) and incubation time (7, 14, 21 and 28d) on fungal growth and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production by three Aspergillus flavusisolates (8, 10 and 14) inoculated on sorghum grains. The Baranyi model was applied to identify the limits of growth and mycotoxin production. Maximum diameter growth rates were observed at 0.99awat 37°C for two of the isolates. The minimum awneeded for mycelial growth was 0.91 at 25 and 37°C. At 15°C, only isolate 8 grew at 0.99aw. Aflatoxin B1 accumulation could be avoided by storing sorghum at low water activity levels (≤0.91aw). Aflatoxin production was not observed at 15°C. This is the first work on the effects of water activity and temperature on A. flavusgrowth and AFB1 production by A. flavusisolates on sorghum grains.

The aim of this work was to use probability models for the prediction of growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavusas a strategy to mitigate the aflatoxin presence in pistachio nuts during postharvest. Logistic models, with temperature and time as explanatory variables, were fitted to the probability of growth and aflatoxin B1(AFB1) production under constant temperature levels, afterwards they were used to predict probabilities under non-isothermal scenarios. The models obtained showed levels of concordance from 80 to 100% in most of the cases. Moreover, the presence of AFB1 in pistachio nuts could be correctly predicted through AFB1 models developed in agar medium or through growth models in pistachio nuts. These findings can support decision making, at transport and storage level, and could be used by producers and processors to predict the time for AFB1 production by A. flavusin pistachio nuts in postharvest.

The effect of the application of two fungicides (cyprodinil alone and a mixture of cyprodinil and fludioxonil) on the mycoflora of grapes, especially ochratoxigenic fungi, was studied. Different doses and application times were analyzed. Grape mycobiota was isolated and identified, and the classification of black aspergilli was carried out. We found that 81.7% of the isolates belonged to Aspergillus nigeraggregate and 18.3% to Aspergillus carbonarius. The ability to produce ochratoxin A (OTA) was studied on Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA) medium in 238 isolates. Most A. carbonarius(97.2%) produced detectable amounts of OTA, while only 2.9% of the A. nigeraggregate were OTA producers. Most of the isolates (58%) produced less than 2.5 μg OTA per g of CYA. That, together with the highest levels of black aspergilli detected near harvest, proved the reported theory that they are primarily responsible for OTA in grapes. The fungicides studied had a significant effect on black aspergilli in three of the four vineyards sampled, as the natural increase of black aspergilli when approaching harvest was in general lower in all the fields treated with fungicides as compared to the control treatment. A mixture of cyprodinil (37.5%) and fludioxonil (25%) applied at veraison and 21 days before harvest was the most effective treatment to prevent black aspergilli in grapes, together with a single application of this mixture at veraison followed by an application of cyprodinil (50%) 21 days before harvest. No OTA was detected in musts (n= 112) produced from either the control treatment or the treated grapes.

The objective of this work was to determine the effects of extrusion cooking on the stability of ochratoxin A (OTA) in an artificially contaminated hulled barley meal (0.73-mm grain diameter) using a single screw extruder. The extrusion cooking parameters were temperature (140, 160, and 180°C), initial moisture content of barley meal (24, 27 and 30%), and residence time (30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 s). Both unextruded and extruded samples were analyzed for OTA by high-performance liquid chromatography. Extrusion cooking variables significantly affected the stability of OTA (P< 0.05). Greater OTA reductions were achieved at higher residence time (70 s), medium temperature level (160°C), and either high (30%) or low moisture (24%) content of samples. The amount of OTA destroyed during the extrusion process ranged from 17 to 86% depending on the studied parameters. The decrease in the amount of OTA after extrusion cooking followed first-order kinetics, showing that the fastest treatment in OTA reduction was that at 140°C and 24% of moisture content.

Forty vineyards from four wine making regions of Spain were sampled at three different growth stages in 2002 and 2003. The aim was to study the fungi associated with grapes and their ability to produce ochratoxin A (OTA) on synthetic media. Among the total mycoflora, 464 (7.7%) and 648 (10.8%) Aspergillussection Nigri(black aspergilli) strains were isolated in 2002 and 2003, respectively, and were classified into three groups: isolates with uniseriate heads, A. nigeraggregate and A. carbonarius. The latter presented the highest percentage of OTA-positive strains (82% in 2002 and 76% in 2003) and produced the highest levels of toxin (2.5–25 μg g−1). The sampling year, sampling date, the region and their interactions presented significant differences in the number of black aspergilli isolated. Most black aspergilli were found in 2003 and at harvest. A positive correlation between the number of black aspergilli found in grapes and the temperature in the field was found. Grapes from 2003, the warmest year, and from Costers del Segre, the warmest region, were significantly the most contaminated. No significant correlation between black aspergilli presence and other meteorological factors such as relative humidity or rainfall could be established. Musts from all the vineyards were also analysed in both years, although no OTA was found in either year.

This review focuses on the fumonisin-producing Fusariumspecies and the ecophysiology of these species. The effects of environmental biotic and abiotic factors on germination, growth, and fumonisin B1production by Fusarium verticillioidesand Fusarium proliferatumhave been investigated under laboratory, field, and storage conditions. An understanding of the factors involved in production of fumonisins is the first step in preventing accumulation of these toxins.

The effect of cinnamon, clove, oregano, palmarosa and lemongrass oils on fumonisin B1 (FB1) accumulation by one isolate each ofFusarium verticillioidesandFusarium proliferatumin non-sterilised naturally contaminated maize grain at 0.995 and 0.950awand at 20 and 30 °C was evaluated. The concentration used was 500 mg kg-1maize. Under these conditions it was shown that antimycotoxigenic ability only took place at the higher water availabilities, and mostly at 20 °C. Only cinnamon, lemongrass and palmarosa oils were somewhat effective. Moreover, it was suggested that competing mycoflora plays an important role in FB1accumulation. It was concluded that the efficacy of essential oils in real substrates, such as cereals, may be much lower than in synthetic media; different essential oils may be found to be useful and at different concentrations. Their effectiveness is highly dependent on both abiotic and biotic factors involved.The effect of cinnamon, clove, oregano, palmarosa and lemongrass oils on fumonisin B1 (FB1) accumulation by one isolate each ofFusarium verticillioidesandFusarium proliferatumin non-sterilised naturally contaminated maize grain at 0.995 and 0.950awand at 20 and 30 °C was evaluated. The concentration used was 500 mg kg-1maize. Under these conditions it was shown that antimycotoxigenic ability only took place at the higher water availabilities, and mostly at 20 °C. Only cinnamon, lemongrass and palmarosa oils were somewhat effective. Moreover, it was suggested that competing mycoflora plays an important role in FB1accumulation. It was concluded that the efficacy of essential oils in real substrates, such as cereals, may be much lower than in synthetic media; different essential oils may be found to be useful and at different concentrations. Their effectiveness is highly dependent on both abiotic and biotic factors involved.

The effect of propionic acid, its sodium salt or a commercial formulation of propionates (0.03, 0.05 and 0.07%), on growth and fumonisin B1 production by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum isolates was evaluated on irradiated maize at different water activities (aw, 0.93, 0.95, 0.98) and temperatures (15, 25°C). The four isolates grew at all awX temperaw ture treatments in the absence of propionates. At the highest propionate concentration tested (0.07%), however, growth was restricted to 0.98 aw, for F. prolifer atum isolates but not for those of F. verticillioides. Inhibition of growth was maximum when propionates were added in the acid form. In the presence of low propionate concentrations (0.03%), growth was sometimes enhanced probably due to assimilation of these compounds by the fungus. W ater activity, temperature, concentration and source of propionate, as well as most two-, three-, four-, and five-way interactions had a significant influence on growth of Fusarium isolates. None of the assayed treatments had any effect on fumonisin B1 production by F. verticillioides isolates. For F. proliferatum, higher fumonisin B1 production occurred in the absence of propionates, and in general concentration decreased with increasing doses of preservatives. Single factors (aw, propionate concentrations and temperature) and temperature Xaw and propionate concentrationX temperature interactions had a significant effect on fumonisin production (p < 0.01). Moreover, propionate concentration was the single most important factor, besides temperature, which affected fumonisin B1 production.

The natural occurrence of aflatoxins BlB2, G1and G2, incidence of Aspergillus flavus, and capacity to produce aflatoxins by A. flavusisolates, were investigated in 100 corn-based samples from Spain destined for human and animal consumption. Only one sample for animal consumption and none for human consumption were found to be contamined with aflatoxins B1and B2. The levels of contamination were 0.15 μg/g of B1and 0.08 μg/g of B2. Of 43 isolate of A. flavus, only 4 were aflatoxin producers.

The bactericidal and fungicidal activities of aspyrone and asperlactone, secondary metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus, and some aspyrone derivatives were studied. In general, aspyrone exhibited better activity than asperlactone or aspyrone derivatives. The inhibition patterns of the assayed compounds were different. Helminthosporium monoceras was the tested mould most inhibited by the studied compounds. The comparative study of the activity of the different compounds showed that the epoxy group seems to be necessary for activity against some micro-organisms. © 1998 SCI

Corn kernels naturally contaminated with fumonisins B1 and B2 were steeped by dipping the whole kernels in either water or a 0.3% solution of sodium bisulphite (pH = 5.7) for 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 h. The toxin content of both the solid and the liquid were analysed for each time period. A different rate of interchange between the solid matrix and the water solution was found for FB1 and FB2 and some differences were found in the fate of both fumonisins between the two steeping systems studied. In addition, a preliminary study of the distribution of FB1 and FB2 between the germ and the remaining part of the kernel was carried out.

Thirty-five patients with four-part displaced proximal humeral fractures and fracture-dislocations were retrospectively reviewed from the years 1977-1990. Thirty-three patients were available for study. All fractures were treated by open reduction and internal fixation allowing early motion. Surgical technique was as atraumatic as possible with the goal of restoring normal anatomy of the proximal humerus with a minimal fixation system. The fixation device consisted of two modified Kirschner wires introduced through the tuberosities and reinforced by a tension band wiring. Neer's criteria were used to evaluate results. With a mean follow-up of 7 years, results were excellent and satisfactory in 21 cases, nonsatisfactory in 10, and poor in two. The most common complication was avascular necrosis (nine patients). All cases of fracture- dislocations corresponded with the nonsatisfactory and poor results. Because of our results, we conclude that in four-part displaced fractures, open reduction and internal fixation with our system of osteosynthesis should be indicated initially. Prosthetic replacement should be considered as primary treatment in cases with marked comminution of the humeral head, in fracturedislocations, and in patients <75 years of age

Contamination studies by ochratoxin A on pork kidney and chicken liver has been carried out in Catalonia (Spain). 73% of the pork kidney samples analyzed did not contain an amount of ochratoxin A over our detection limit (0.5 ng/g) whereas only 7% had contamination higher than 1 ng/g. None of the chicken samples analyzed were contaminated by this toxin above the detection limit. All contamination levels found are below the maximum levels accepted by several countries for this kind of material. A confirmative test is necessary before discarding false positive samples.

A gene encoding a putative pyruvate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.1) was isolated from a genomic library of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus parasiticus strain SU-1. The deduced amino acid sequence showed 37% homology to PDC1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Although A. parasiticus has an obligate growth requirement for oxygen, it produced ethanol in shake flask cultures indicating a response to anoxic conditions mediated by pyruvate decarboxylase.