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[Display omitted] • Chickpea cell wall integrity affects starch bioaccessibility, digestion, and postprandial metabolism. •.Preserving cellular structure of processed chickpeas improves blood glucose homeostasis. •.Rheological tests provide insight of chickpea hummus properties for future studies of amylolysis. Slowing the rate of carbohydrate digestion leads to low postprandial glucose and insulin responses, which are associated with reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. There is increasing evidence that food structure plays a crucial role in influencing the bioaccessibility and digestion kinetics of macronutrients. The aims of this study were to compare the effects of two hummus meals, with different degrees of cell wall integrity, on postprandial metabolic responses in relation to the microstructural and rheological characteristics of the meals. A randomised crossover trial in 15 healthy participants was designed to compare the acute effect of 27 g of starch, provided as hummus made from either intact chickpea cells (ICC) or ruptured chickpea cells (RCC), on postprandial metabolic responses. In vitro starch digestibility, microstructural and rheological experiments were also conducted to evaluate differences between the two chickpea hummus meals. Blood insulin and GIP concentrations were significantly lower (P < 0.02, P < 0.03) after the consumption of the ICC meal than the meal containing RCC. In vitro starch digestion for 90 min was slower in ICC than in RCC. Microscopic examination of hummus samples digested in vitro for 90 min revealed more intact chickpea cells in ICC compared to the RCC sample. Rheological experiments showed that fracture for ICC hummus samples occurred at smaller strains compared to RCC samples. However, the storage modulus for ICC was higher than RCC, which may be explained by the presence of intact cells in ICC. Food structure can affect the rate and extent of starch bioaccessibility and digestion and may explain the difference in the time course of metabolic responses between meals. The rheological properties were measured on the two types of meals before ingestion, showing significant differences that may point to different breakdown mechanisms during subsequent digestion. This trial was registered at clinicaltrial.gov as NCT03424187. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Glycation only occurred in the dry-heated soy protein sample. • Wet heating increased in vitro infant digestion, while dry heating decreased it. • 29 T-cell epitopes and 27 B-cell epitopes were predicted in the digests. • Cross-reactive epitopes were predicted between soy and other legume proteins. • Heating and digestion time may modulate peptide-induced immune responses. During production of soy-based infant formula, soy protein undergoes heating processes. This study investigated the differential impact of heating modes on the immunogenic potential of peptides in soy protein digests. Wet or dry heating was applied, followed by in vitro gastrointestinal infant digestion. The released peptides were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Bioinformatics tools were utilized to predict and identify potential linear B-cell and T-cell epitopes, as well as to explore cross-reactivity with other legumes. Subsequently, the peptide intensities of the same potential epitope across different experimental conditions were compared. As a result, we confirmed the previously observed enhancing effect of wet heating on infant digestion and inhibitory effect of dry heating. A total of 8,546 peptides were detected in the digests, and 6,684 peptides were with a score over 80. Among them, 29 potential T-cell epitopes and 27 potential B-cell epitopes were predicted. Cross-reactivity between soy and other legumes, including peanut, pea, chickpea, lentil, kidney bean, and lupine, was also detected. Overall, heating and digestion time could modulate the potential to trigger peptide-induced immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Dual modifications improve mineral binding efficiency in the protein-iron complex. • The dual-modified protein complex exhibits increased thermal stability. • Dual modification boosts mineral bioavailability, ferritin, cellular transport, retention, and uptake. • Dual modification enhances protein-iron complex functionality. The research aimed to evaluate the effect of ultrasonication and succinylation on the functional, iron binding, physiochemical, and cellular mineral uptake efficacy of chickpea protein concentrate. Succinylation resulted in significant improvements in the water-holding capacity (WHC) (25.47 %), oil-holding capacity (OHC) (31.38 %), and solubility (5.80 %) of the chickpea protein-iron complex. Mineral bioavailability significantly increased by 4.41 %, and there was a significant increase in cellular mineral uptake (64.64 %), retention (36.68 %), and transport (27.96 %). The ferritin content of the succinylated chickpea protein-iron complex showed a substantial increase of 66.31%. Furthermore, the dual modification approach combining ultrasonication and succinylation reduced the particle size of the protein-iron complex with a substantial reduction of 83.25 %. It also resulted in a significant enhancement of 51.5 % in the SH (sulfhydryl) content and 48.92 % in the surface hydrophobicity. Mineral bioavailability and cellular mineral uptake, retention, and transport were further enhanced through dual modification. In terms of application, the addition of single and dual-modified chickpea protein-iron complex to a fruit-based smoothie demonstrated positive acceptance in sensory attributes. Overall, the combined approach of succinylation and ultrasonication to the chickpea protein-iron complex shows a promising strategy for enhancing the physiochemical and techno-functional characteristics, cellular mineral uptake, and the development of vegan food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Despite high gross Ca contents many plant-based foods have little bioavailable Ca. • Chemical form of Ca must be considered when fortifying to augment dietary Ca. • White bread fortified with calcium carbonate was a good source of dietary Ca. Calcium deficiency is widespread globally, especially in diets with minimal consumption of dairy. It is therefore important to identify plant-based sources of calcium that can make a meaningful contribution to calcium intakes for populations following diets with a minimum supply of dairy products. The best sources of calcium have a high calcium content and bioavailability. Therefore, we evaluated the gross and bioaccessible calcium supplies of 25 plant-based products from 5 food groups considered to be good and important sources of calcium. Bioaccessible calcium was examined using the INFOGEST static digestion model in which isotopically labelled 43Ca was used as a tracer of reagent calcium to improve accuracy of bioaccessibility measurements. The gross calcium content varied widely amongst all the food products, ranging between 7.48 and 959 mg/100 g fresh weight (fw), with approximately 50 % of the products being equivalent to or surpassing the calcium content of skimmed milk. Bioaccessibility of calcium was equally variable, ranging from about 0.1 – 50 %. The lowest bioaccessibility (<10 %) was found in spinach, plant-based beverages, tofu, dried figs and tahini and was attributed to: 1. the high content of oxalate and phytate in some of the products, and 2. the low solubility of tricalcium phosphate which was used for fortification in the plant-based beverages. The remaining products generally had a high bioaccessibility that was similar to, or higher than that of skimmed milk (∼30 %). When both bioaccessibility and recommended serving portions were considered, only 3 products were identified as good sources of calcium, requiring 0.2 – 1.4 servings to equal the bioaccessible supply from skimmed milk. The top three sources of plant-based calcium identified were kale, finger millet and fortified white bread in that order, with kale providing 5 times more bioaccessible calcium than 1 serving of skimmed milk. Moderate sources of calcium where 1.5 – 3 servings was equivalent to 1 serving of skimmed milk included wholemeal bread, some bean varieties (black chickpeas, chickpeas, kidney beans, peas), broccoli, cabbage and almond drink. The rest of the products were either of low calcium content, poor bioaccessibility, and/or not consumed in sufficient quantities to make a significant contribution to daily requirements. White bread was a good source of calcium as it was fortified with calcium carbonate and this suggests that mandatory widescale fortification of staple cereals with this form of calcium should be considered a viable approach to augment dietary calcium intakes in vulnerable populations. Low bioaccessibility of fortified calcium in plant-based beverages, often marketed as good sources of calcium, suggests the need for regulation and for further in vivo studies to validate bioavailability of calcium in these products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Atmospheric pressure plasma jet enhanced the functionalities of chickpea protein. • Protein digestibility was significantly increased after 30 s plasma treatment. • The α-helical structures were transformed into random coils and β-sheet structures. • The smaller flake-like microstructures of protein facilitated its functionalities. Chickpea protein (CPI) is a promising dietary protein and potential substitute for soy protein in food product development due to its high protein content and low allergenicity. However, CPI possesses denser tertiary and quaternary structures and contains certain amount of anti-nutritional factors, both of which constrain its functional properties and digestibility. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of atmospheric pressure plasma jets (APPJ) as a non-thermal method for enhancing the functional characteristics and digestibility of CPI. In this study, the reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generated by the APPJ treatment led to protein oxidation and increased carbonyl and di-tyrosine contents. At the same time, the secondary, tertiary and microstructural structures of CPI were changed. The solubility, water holding capacity, fat absorption capacity, emulsifying capacity and foaming capacity of CPI were significantly improved after 30 s APPJ treatment, and a higher storage modulus in rheology was observed. Additionally, it was observed that the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of APPJ-treated CPI increased significantly from 44.85 ± 0.6 % to 50.2 ± 0.59 % following in vitro simulated gastric and intestinal digestion, marking a noteworthy improvement of 11.93 %. These findings indicate that APPJ processing can enhance the functional and digestive properties of CPI through structural modification and expand its potential applications within the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Chickpea protein hydrolysates are preferred functional coating materials with high cytoaffinity. • The high cytoaffinity of the novel microcarriers is due to the presence of peptide containing terminal lysine or arginine. • The plant-based microcarriers exhibit excellent proliferation and differentiation for muscle and fat cells. Cultured meat is believed to be a promising alternative to conventional meat production that can reduce environmental impacts, animal suffering, and food safety risks. However, one of the major challenges in producing cultured meat is to provide suitable microcarriers that can support cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. In this study, we developed novel microcarriers based on chickpea protein hydrolysates functionalized with trypsin. These microcarriers exhibited superior cytoaffinity and proliferation for various types of cultured cells, including C2C12, porcine myoblasts, chicken satellite cells, and 3T3-L1. Moreover, these microcarriers enabled cell differentiation into muscle or fat cells under appropriate conditions. We propose that trypsin treatment enhances the cytoaffinity of chickpea protein hydrolysates by exposing lysine and arginine residues that can interact with cell surface receptors. Our results suggest that chickpea protein hydrolysate functionalized microcarrier is a promising substrate for cultured meat production with cost-effectiveness and scalability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Chickpea protein hydrolysates are preferred functional coating materials with high cytoaffinity. • The high cytoaffinity of the novel microcarriers is due to the presence of peptide containing terminal lysine or arginine. • The plant-based microcarriers exhibit excellent proliferation and differentiation for muscle and fat cells. Cultured meat is believed to be a promising alternative to conventional meat production that can reduce environmental impacts, animal suffering, and food safety risks. However, one of the major challenges in producing cultured meat is to provide suitable microcarriers that can support cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. In this study, we developed novel microcarriers based on chickpea protein hydrolysates functionalized with trypsin. These microcarriers exhibited superior cytoaffinity and proliferation for various types of cultured cells, including C2C12, porcine myoblasts, chicken satellite cells, and 3T3-L1. Moreover, these microcarriers enabled cell differentiation into muscle or fat cells under appropriate conditions. We propose that trypsin treatment enhances the cytoaffinity of chickpea protein hydrolysates by exposing lysine and arginine residues that can interact with cell surface receptors. Our results suggest that chickpea protein hydrolysate functionalized microcarrier is a promising substrate for cultured meat production with cost-effectiveness and scalability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Starch and protein hydrolysis were measured using gastric-small intestinal kinetics. • Drying led to faster particle size reduction and increased starch digestibility. • Fine cracker and puree had high starch digestibility due to small particle size. • Coarse puree had slow gastric emptying, large size, and low starch digestibility. Chickpeas are an agriculturally-important legume that are an excellent source of protein, fiber, and minerals. Developing chickpea-based snacks could provide consumers with snack products rich in protein and other nutrients. In this study, chickpea puree (high moisture content) and cracker (low moisture content) were each produced with large (7 mm sieve; coarse) or small (2 mm sieve; fine) particle size to investigate the impact of initial particle size and moisture content on particle breakdown, starch hydrolysis, and protein hydrolysis during in vitro digestion. All treatments underwent static in vitro oral digestion, dynamic gastric digestion in the Human Gastric Simulator (HGS), and static in vitro small intestinal digestion. The emptying rate from the HGS was significantly (p < 0.05) higher for fine puree compared to the other treatments, due to higher saturation ratio and smaller initial particle size. The reducing sugars and free amino groups released (representing starch and protein hydrolysis, respectively) from fine puree were higher than coarse puree, and fine cracker was higher than coarse cracker due to the influence of initial particle size. For example, after 360 min total in vitro digestion, the starch hydrolysis of the fine cracker (48.1 ± 3.2%) was significantly higher than (p < 0.05) the coarse cracker (36.3 ± 5.8%). Overall, crackers had higher protein and starch hydrolysis compared to puree in the liquid phase during digestion. The study showed that both the smaller initial particle size and drying significantly (p < 0.05) increased the particle size reduction during gastric digestion and starch and protein digestibility in chickpea-based snacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • High-pressure homogenization (HPH) was applied to modify chickpea protein. • HPH induced dissociation and unfolding of chickpea protein molecules. • The emulsifying properties of chickpea protein were improved by HPH. • The foaming performances of chickpea protein were promoted by HPH. • HPH improved the thermal and storage stability of chickpea protein emulsions. In order to expand the utilization of chickpeas in various food products, this study investigated the effects of different homogenization pressures (0–150 MPa) and cycles (1–3) on the physicochemical, and functional properties of chickpea protein. After high-pressure homogenization (HPH) treatment, hydrophobic groups and sulfhydryl groups of chickpea protein was exposed which increased its surface hydrophobicity and decreased its total sulfhydryl content. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the molecular weight of modified chickpea protein remained unchanged. The particle size and turbidity of chickpea protein significantly decreased with an increase in homogenization pressure and cycles. Furthermore, the solubility, foaming, and emulsifying properties of chickpea protein were all enhanced by HPH treatment. In addition, the emulsions prepared by modified chickpea protein showed better stability capacity due to its smaller particle size and higher zeta potential. Therefore, HPH might be an effective technique to improve the functional properties of chickpea protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Legumes, such as chickpea, represent a good source of high quality proteins for which there is an increasing global consumer demand. A chickpea protein concentrate (CP) was generated by isoelectric precipitation. Protein determination, electrophoretic and gel permeation chromatographic analysis revealed that the order of CP solubility was pH 7.5 > 2.5 > 5.0. Sunflower oil in water (O/W) emulsions were generated with the CP at pH 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5. Microstructural evaluation of the emulsions using laser light-scattering particle size analysis, optical microscopy and rheological analysis showed that smaller droplet size (3.1 ± 0.2 and 1.1 ± 0.1 μm) and the highest elastic moduli (876.0 ± 3.2 and 563.5 ± 6.5 Pa) were obtained in those emulsions generated with CP at pH 2.5 and 7.5. The ferric reducing (FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values of the CP emulsions ranged from 194.5 ± 19.2 to 242.4 ± 8.4 μmol Trolox Eq·g−1 CP for FRAP at pH 2.5 and 5.0, respectively, and from 313.2 ± 2.6 to 369.0 ± 1.6 μmol Trolox eq·g−1 CP for ORAC at pH 5.0 and 2.5, respectively. The enzyme inhibitory activity of the emulsions was generally low irrespective of the pH value (c.a. 3 and 30% inhibition for dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity, respectively). Simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID) of the emulsions significantly decreased their FRAP whereas it increased their ORAC values as well as their ACE and DPP-IV inhibitory activities irrespective of the pH value of the CP. These results demonstrate the potential application of reduced fat CP-stabilized emulsions for the provision of antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities. Unlabelled Image • The stability of chickpea-based emulsions was pH dependent. • Smaller particle sizes and higher viscoelastic moduli were obtained at pH 2.5 and 7.5. • The emulsions exhibited good in vitro bioactive properties. • Simulated gastrointestinal digestion enhanced emulsion bioactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Chickpea protein hydrolysate (CPH) can reduce deteriorations of frozen surimi. • CPH exhibited both thermal hysteresis and antioxidant activities. • Denaturation of myofibril protein was inhibited during freeze–thaw cycling. • Gelling properties of CPH-protected frozen surimi were also enhanced. Chickpea protein (CP) and its enzymatic hydrolysates are one of the most widely consumed pulse ingredients manifesting versatile applications in food industry, such as binders, emulsifiers, and meat protein substitutes. Other than those well-known functionalities, however, the use of CP as a cryoprotectant remained unexplored. In this study, we prepared the chickpea protein hydrolysate (CPH) and investigated its cryoprotective effects to frozen surimi in terms of the protein structure integrity and gelling behaviors. Results indicated that CPH could inhibit myofibrillar protein (MP) denaturation and oxidation during the freeze–thaw cycling, as evidenced by their increased solubility, Ca2+-ATPase activity, sulfhydryl concentration, and declined content of disulfide bonds, carbonyl concentration and surface hydrophobicity. Freezing-induced changes on MP secondary structures were also retarded. Moreover, gels prepared from CPH-protected frozen surimi demonstrated more stabilized microstructure, uniform water distribution, enhanced elasticity, gel strength and water holding capacity. The CPH alone, at a reducing addition content of 4% (w/w), exhibited comparable cryoprotective performance to that of the commercial formulation (4% sucrose and 4% sorbitol). Therefore, this study provides scientific insights for development of pulse proteins as novel and high-performance food cryoprotectants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A multi-mycotoxin determination method was developed for plant-based meat alternatives. • Except for seitan, all of the samples were contaminated with up to seven co-occurring mycotoxins. • Alternariol found in analysed samples may lead to a concerning exposure in a full substitution scenario. • Samples contaminated with aflatoxins and ochratoxin A suggest a health concern related to a potential increase of liver and renal cancer. • New regulatory frameworks correlated with current consumption trends are needed. The aim of this study was to fill in the gap regarding the occurrence of mycotoxins in plant-based meat alternatives. Hence, a multi-mycotoxin method (aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and mycotoxins from the Alternaria alternata genera) was developed followed by an exposure assessment for the Italian consumers' exposure to mycotoxins. A total of 13 meat alternatives samples based on soy, pea, chickpea, lupin, and seitan were analysed. With the exception of seitan, all of the remaining samples were contaminated with one mycotoxin or mixtures of up to seven mycotoxins. The level of contamination was as low as 0.2 μg/kg alternariol methyl ether and as high as 66.9 μg/kg fumonisin B1. To analyse the exposure to mycotoxins due to plant-based meat alternatives consumption we used the consumption meat data from the Food and Agriculture Organization for Italian adult consumers and simulated a full replacement of meat with plant-based meat alternatives. Based on our model, consumption of plant-based meat alternatives led to a non-tolerable exposure to alternariol (hazard index (HI) > 1) in pea-based burger and soy + wheat-based steak, while samples contaminated with aflatoxins, respectively ochratoxin A, indicated a health concern related to liver and renal cancer (margin of exposure (MOE) < 10,000). This is the first study that presents the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in multiple plant-based meat alternatives. Moreover, these results indicate that there is a need for policymakers to consider the regulation of mycotoxins in plant-based meat alternatives in order to ensure consumers' safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of infrared heating surface temperature and tempering moisture on the nutritional properties of desi chickpea, hull-less barley, and their blends were examined. Specifically, this included changes to the level of anti-nutritive factors ( i.e. , trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibitors, total phenolics and condensed tannins), amino acid composition and in vitro protein digestibility. Results indicated that both temperature and the tempering/temperature treatment caused a reduction in levels of all anti-nutritional factors for both flours, and the effect was more prominent in the tempering-temperature combination. The amino acid composition of both flours was not substantially changed with tempering or infrared heating. The amino acid scores (AAS) of chickpea and barley flours, as determined by the first limiting amino acid using the FAO/WHO reference pattern found in the case of barley to be limiting in lysine with an AAS of ~0.9, whereas for chickpea flour, threonine was limiting and had an AAS of ~0.6. The in vitro protein digestibility of chickpea samples was found to increase from 76% to 79% with the tempering-heat (135 °C) combination, whereas barley flour increased from 72% to 79% when directly heated to 135 °C (without tempering). In vitro protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (IV-PDCAAS) was found to increase from 65% to 71% for chickpea flour and 44% to 52% for barley flour, respectively with tempering-temperature (135 °C) combination indicating that tempering with infrared heating can improve the nutritional value of both flours. The addition of chickpea flour to the barley flour acted to improve the nutritional properties (IV-PDCAAS), to an extent depending on the concentration of chickpea flour present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raw and processed (soaked or cooked) seeds of peas, lentils, chickpeas, fava beans and common beans were studied for their contents of antinutritional factors (lectins, phytic acid, total and soluble oxalates), along with soybean as a control. Analysis of variance indicated that legume type, treatment and their interactive effects were significant on these antinutrients. The raw soybean seed was found to contain the highest levels of lectins (692.8 HU/mg), phytic acid (22.91 mg/g), total oxalate (370.5 mg/100 g) and soluble oxalate (200.7 mg/100 g) among all investigated seeds. Relatively high contents of lectins were detected in beans (87.69–88.59 HU/mg) and other pulses ranging from 2.73–11.07 HU/mg. Phytic acid in Canadian pulses varied slightly from 8.55–22.85 mg/g. Total oxalates were variable, ranging from 244.7–294.0 mg/100 g in peas, 168.6–289.1 mg/100 g in lentils, 241.5–291.4 mg/100 g in fava beans, 92.2–214.0 mg/100 g in chickpeas and 98.86–117.0 mg/100 g in common beans. Approximately 24–72% of total oxalate appeared to be soluble in all investigated pulses. Soaking the seeds in distilled water significantly decreased the contents of lectins (0.11–5.18%), total oxalate (17.40–51.89%) and soluble oxalate (26.66–56.29%), but had no impact on phytic acid. The cooking process was found to be more effective in reducing levels of all the investigated antinutritional factors, except phytic acid in common beans and soybean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Gluten free breads (GFB) were fortified by an acorn (ACF) and chickpea (CPF) flour blend. • The most abundant phenolics in GFB were gallic, ellagic and valoneic acid dilactone. • ACF increased the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of GFB. • In vitro enzymatic starch digestibility of the bread crumb decreased with increasing ACF. • ACF- CPF enriched GFB had lower in vivo glycemic index and load compared to control GFB. Gluten-free (GF) breads, based on rice flour and corn starch (50:50), were fortified with a mixture of acorn flour (ACF) - chickpea flour (CPF) at 30% substitution level of corn starch (i.e., rice flour:corn starch:ACF-CPF 50:20:30) using different flour blends of ACF:CPF at weight ratios of 5:25, 7.5:22.5, 12.5:17.5, and 20:10 in order to improve the nutritional quality and antioxidant potential as well as the glycemic responses of the GF breads; a control GF bread with rice flour:corn starch 50:50 ratio was also prepared. ACF was richer in total phenolic content than CPF, whereas CPF was characterized by higher amounts of total tocopherols and lutein compared to ACF. For both ACF and CPF as well as the fortified breads, the most abundant phenolic compounds were gallic (GA) and ellagic (ELLA) acids as found by HPLC-DAD analysis, while a hydrolysable tannin, valoneic acid dilactone, was also identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS in high amount in the ACF-GF bread having the highest level of ACF (ACF:CPF 20:10), even though it seemed to decompose during breadmaking, possibly into GA and ELLA. Therefore, the inclusion of these two raw materials as ingredients in GF bread formulations resulted in baked products with enhanced concentrations of such bioactive compounds and higher antioxidant activities, as indicated by three different assays (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP). The extent of glucose release, as evaluated by an in vitro enzymic assay, was negatively correlated (r = −0.96; p = 0.005) with the level of added ACF, and was significantly reduced for all ACF-CPF fortified products when compared with their non-fortified GF counterpart. Furthermore, the GF bread containing a flour mixture of ACP:CPF at a weight ratio of 7.5:22.5, was subjected to an in vivo intervention protocol to assess the glycemic response when consumed by 12 healthy volunteers; in this case, white wheat bread was used as reference food. The glycemic index (GI) of the fortified bread was significantly lower compared to the control GF bread (97.4 versus 159.2, respectively), which along with its lower amount of available carbohydrates and the higher level of dietary fibers, resulted in a significantly reduced glycemic load (7.8 versus 18.8 g per serving of 30 g). The present findings underlined the effectiveness of acorn and chickpea flours in improving the nutritional quality and glycemic responses of fortified GF breads with these flours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Fermentation improved the digestibility of chickpea protein. • Fermentation hydrolyzed chickpea protein, including certain 7S globulins. • Fermentation decreased the content of β-sheet in chickpea protein. • Fermentation exposed hydrophobic groups in protein, weakening its structure. This study investigated the effects of fermentation on in vitro protein digestibility of chickpeas and their relationship with the variations of multilevel structures of chickpea protein. The results showed that lactobacillus fermentation not only increased the solubility of chickpea protein but also enhanced the hydrolysis of protein during gastric and intestinal digestion by altering the multilevel structures of chickpea protein. The degree of hydrolysis, free amino acid content, and sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) revealed that macromolecule chickpea protein was hydrolyzed during fermentation. Raman and UV spectroscopy scans indicated that the α-helix content increased while the content of β-sheet in chickpea protein dropped significantly after fermentation. As for fermented chickpea protein, the aromatic acid residues were gradually more exposed than the unfermented chickpea protein, and the intramolecular disulfide bond was generally converted to the intermolecular form. Our findings showed that fermentation changed the multilevel structures of chickpea protein, degrading spherical structures into looser states that were more responsible for their effective hydrolysis during digestion. Furthermore, better digestibility of chickpea protein would stimulate the use of chickpea fermentation in food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seven different in vitro methods to determine the protein digestibility for chickpea proteins were considered and also the application of these methodologies for calculating PDCAAS (protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score), seeking their correlations with the in vivo methodology. In vitro digestibility of raw and heated samples were determined using pepsin-pancreatin hydrolysis, considering soluble nitrogen via Kjeldahl (ppKJ) and hydrolysed peptide linkages using trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid and o-phthaldialdehyde. In vitro digestibility was also determined using trypsin, chymotrypsin and peptidase (3-Enz) or trypsin, chymotrypsin, peptidase and pronase solution (4-Enz). None of the correlations between in vitro and in vivo digestibilities were significant (at p < 0.0500), but, strong correlations were observed between PDCAAS calculated by in vitro and in vivo results. PDCAAS-ppKJ, PDCAAS-3-Enz and PDCAAS-4-Enz presented the highest correlations with in vivo method, r = 0.9316, 0.9442 and 0.9649 ( p < 0.0500), respectively. The use of in vitro methods for calculating PDCAAS may be promising and deserves more discussions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of canning on color, protein and phenolic profile of grains of kidney bean, field pea and chickpea varieties/accession. Color of grains of different pulses was enhanced after canning. Grains L * (lightness) decreased while a * (redness to yellowness) and b * (greenness to blueness) increased after canning in all the pulses. Protein profiling of grains of different pulses after canning revealed that kidney bean and chickpea, respectively, had the least and the most thermally susceptible polypeptides. Kidney bean and chickpea showed higher Percentage washed drained weight (PWDW) than field pea. Pulse with more grain hardness and PWDW showed higher degree of grain splitting during canning. Grain splitting was also higher in dark colored accessions/varieties as compared to the light colored. Ferulic acid was the most predominant compound present in raw grains of different pulses. Raw kidney bean grains showed higher accumulation of catechin, chlorogenic, protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid than those of chickpea and field pea. Canning caused reduction in all the phenolic compounds except gallic acid and most prominent effect of canning on protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic and ferulic acid was observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Gluten-free (GF) sourdough (SD) was made by a fermented chickpea extract (FCE) starter. • FCE-SD addition into GF breads increased loaf volume and decreased crumb pore size. • Crumb firming and starch retrogradation decreased in breads made with FCE-SD. • FCE-SD inclusion into GF breads decreased the staling rate. • In vitro enzymatic starch digestibility of the crumb decreased upon bread storage. The use of a sourdough (SD) preparation based on a fermented chickpea extract (FCE) starter as a leavening and anti-staling agent in gluten-free breads was explored in this study. The FCE starter was prepared by a submerged fermentation (at 37 °C for 15 h) of coarsely ground chickpeas and the gluten-free bread formulations, based on rice and corn flours, were made using a rice sourdough produced with the FCE starter as additional leavening agent; the FCE-SD breads and samples containing merely baker's yeast as microbial leavener (control) were both prepared at three different levels of added water, i.e., 85, 92 and 100% (flour weight basis). The loaf specific volume significantly (p < 0.05) increased with sourdough inclusion into batters and by increasing the amount of added water. Moreover, inclusion of sourdough into the gluten-free formulations resulted in a finer porous crumb macrostructure and a lower crust moisture content than control breads. Upon bread storage (25 °C for 5 days), water migration from crumb to crust was noted. Staling events were also monitored by compression testing and differential scanning calorimetry, showing an increase in crumb firmness and the apparent melting enthalpy (ΔH) of retrograded amylopectin during bread storage; the values for both parameters decreased with inclusion of FCE-SD and with higher amounts of added water into the gluten-free formulations. Kinetic data in modelling crumb firmness and ΔH values by linear regression analysis and the Avrami equation, respectively, revealed a slower staling rate for breads with sourdough, compared to control formulations; moreover, with increasing level of added water to the batter, the firming rate was reduced, while the amylopectin retrogradation was enhanced. Finally, in vitro enzymatic starch digestibility of the crumb was lower for staled breads stored for 5 days, compared to fresh products, while there was no pronounced effect by sourdough inclusion. Overall, the incorporation of FCE-SD into gluten-free bread formulations seems to be a promising alternative for improving quality and extending the shelf life of gluten-free baked products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The synergistic effects of the time and power of HIU on CPI were investigated. • HIU was found to break the non-covalent bonds of chickpea protein. • HIU was found to make protein aggregates smaller and more even in size. • HIU was found to promote the interaction of protein aggregates with water. • The power over 150 W promoted the creation of non-covalent bonds. The aim of this study was to improve the functional properties of chickpea protein for its potential application in the food industry. The effects of low frequency high intensity ultrasound (HIU) at different power (0–300 W) and time (15–30 min) on the rheological properties, gelation, thermal stability, solubility and microstructure of chickpea protein were tested and analyzed. Based on the analysis, it was found that HIU caused the disruption of non-covalent bonds between protein chains leading to the unfolding of chickpea. The HIU-treated chickpea isolate protein aggregates were smaller and more uniformly dispersed, with increased orderly structure, thermal stability, and exposure of hydrophobic and charged groups originally buried in the interior. The experimental results also showed that the effect of HIU did not become more pronounced with increasing power and time, as the power exceeding 150 W for 30 min led to the formation of new polymers by the interactions between the exposed non-covalent groups, which were more ordered and homogeneous than those without HIU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Contamination of plant-based meat alternatives is understudied or not studied at all. • Mycotoxin and alkaloid contamination was found in plant-based meat alternatives. • Mycotoxin mixtures were reported in soy-based food. • Data in the literature do not return a full picture of the EU countries. • Data from this review can be used in future risk assessment studies. The ongoing shift from traditional diets to plant-based meat alternatives is governed by the friendly-character related to consumers' health and environment. However, the beneficial aspects of meat alternatives overshadow the possible adverse effects that accompany them. The present systematic review shows that the contamination of the most common plant-based meat alternatives, soybean, chickpea, pea, and seitan with mycotoxins is understudied or not studied at all. Even though they are toxic and were found in soy-based food, tropane and β-carboline alkaloids contamination data in plant-based meat alternatives is also lacking. Mycotoxin mixtures that can have additive or synergistic toxic effects have been found in multiple soy-based food, revealing the high risk that consumers expose themselves to. To better understand the risks that come along with the shift to plant-based meat diets, future research is needed regarding contamination data of plant-based meat alternatives with natural toxins. Maximum limits for contaminants found in plant-based meat alternatives need to be established by the European Commission in order to ensure consumers' food safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our previous study identified a chickpea peptide (CPe-III) derived from chickpea albumin hydrolysate which exhibited a high antioxidant activity. CPe-III-S peptide corresponding to amino acid sequences of CPe-III (RQSHFANAQP) was synthesized chemically to determine the bioactive activity. The reducing power, hydroxyl radical, DPPH radical, ABTS radical scavenging assay and DCFH-DA assay showed significant dose-dependent activities. The cell viability assay indicated a high inhibition activity on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells with EC 50 values of 2.38 and 1.50 μmol/mL. The p53 protein increased with increasing concentration of CPe-III-S tested by ELISA Kit. The specific binding of peptide and p53 protein was determined by means of molecular docking. These results indicated that CPe-III-S effectively inhibited the proliferation of breast cancer cells by increasing the p53. This is the first report of the synthetic peptide which based on CPe-III derived from the enzymatic hydrolysate of chickpea to exhibit the antioxidant activity and antiproliferative effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, saponins have been controversially discussed due to increasing evidence on their health promoting impacts. The present study aimed to determine the stability of saponins in vegetarian, broccoli-based bars (BBBs) incorporating chickpea (cp), soy (sb) and faba beans (fb) as protein sources after being subjected to different cooking methods. Commonly domestic ways of BBB preparation were microwaving, frying, frying and microwaving, steaming and baking. Saponins were analyzed by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). Results indicated that HPTLC analysis with post-chromatographic derivatization and coupling to ESI-MS was capable of separating, identification and quantification of two saponin bands in chickpeas and faba beans, i.e. saponin B and 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4 H -pyranone (DDMP) saponin. Defatted soy bean flour exhibited four bands (saponin B, DDMP saponin, derivatives of soyasaponins A and B). The total saponin content was 297, 4446, and 113 μg·g − 1 dw in chickpea, defatted soy bean flour, and faba beans, respectively. Pretreatments, for instance soaking and peeling of chickpeas and faba beans reduced the total amount of saponins by 8 and 35%, respectively. Subsequently, different cooking conditions significantly reduced the saponin content by 23–32%, 18–59% and 26–36% in sb-BBBs, cp-BBBs and fb-BBB, respectively. Particularly, the DDMP saponin/saponin B ratio was affected. Apparently, conversion of unstable DDMP saponin to saponin B has been observed during the treatments. However, percentile concentration of the different saponins in the processed BBB does not vary compared to the untreated BBB. Soy beans seem not only to be an adequate source of vegetative proteins, but might be also used as a source of valuable saponins. Finally, an efficient determination method was presented providing evidence for predicting the thermal impact on saponins in innovative vegetarian BBBs. In this regard, optimization of cooking conditions considering the retained saponin amounts is recommended, especially for designing new functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Flour preparation steps determine structural and digestion properties. • Incorporation of cellular chickpea-flour reduced in vitro starch digestion by ∼ 50% • Pulses structural properties as key aspect governing in vivo appetite sensations. • Cellular pulse-based flours as promising ingredients increasing satiety. Nowadays, pulse flours are ingredients that are more and more used as substitutes in traditional staples (i.e., pasta, bread). In this study, cellular chickpea-flour was used as an ingredient to replace conventional raw-milled chickpea-flour in suspensions and semi-solid purees. The contribution of cellular integrity on in vitro macronutrient digestion and the subsequent effect on in vivo appetite sensations were investigated. Alternating the flour preparation sequence by interchanging hydrothermal treatment and mechanical disintegration (thermo-mechanical treatment) resulted in three chickpea-flours with distinct levels of cellular integrity, and thus nutrient accessibility. The study showed that cellular integrity in chickpea-flours was preserved upon secondary hydrothermal treatment and led to significant attenuation of in vitro macronutrient digestion as compared to conventional chickpea-flour. In a randomized crossover design, significant increase of mean in vivo subjective appetite sensations satiety and fullness along with decreases in hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption were achieved when cellular integrity was kept without an effect on palatability and appearance of the purees (n = 22). In vitro digestion along with microstructural assessment confirmed the importance of cellular integrity for attenuating macronutrient digestion and thereby contributing to enhanced subjective satiety and fullness in pulses. Overall, this study highlights the promising potential of altarenating the flour preparation sequence resulting in macronutrient and energy-matched flours with different nutrient encapsulation which lead to different in vitro digestion kinetics and in vivo appetite sensations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand the role that dietary fibre plays in the health benefits of pulses, the cell wall polysaccharides of pulses were characterized. To allow comparison between this data and nutritional studies, cooked chickpeas, lentils, beans and peas were used rather than raw seeds. Insoluble fibre, soluble fibre, resistant starch and oligosaccharide fractions were isolated using digestive enzymes at 37 °C. Prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides, including raffinose, stachyose and verbascose made up between 3.5 and 6.9% of the cooked pulses (dry weight basis). Pulse fibre is pectin rich, with most being found in the soluble fibre fraction. The soluble fibre fraction is a diverse mixture of polysaccharides of varying sizes and solutions of soluble fibre exhibit a range of viscosities depending on the pulse type. The sugars which make up the insoluble fibre fraction suggest a large cellulose component. Microscopic examination of cooked whole pulses showed that a large fraction of the starch was partially gelatinized and contained within intact cell walls whereas boiled flour pastes had few ungelatinized granules. After simulated upper-gut digestion, some starch remained inaccessible to digestive enzymes. Cell walls of pulses modulate starch gelatinization and reduce enzymatic hydrolysis, which may account for the low glycemic response attributed to pulses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Chickpea sprouting prompts breakdown of storage proteins, as assessed by proteomics. • Sprouting triggers the expression of enzymes involved in plant development. • In vitro digestion of chickpea sprouts revealed increased release of α-amino groups. • Potential IgE-binding sequences in digests of chickpea flours are common to soybean. • Potential antioxidant sequences were identified in the sprouts and seed chickpea digests. The demand for sustainably produced proteins is increasing with the world population and is prompting a dietary shift toward plant sourced proteins. Vegetable proteins have lower digestibility and biological value compared to animal derived counterparts. We explored sprouting of chickpea seeds as a strategy for improving digestibility. Protein evolution associated with by the sprouting process was assessed by proteomics. The sprouting induced breakdown of seed storage proteins and doubled the release of free alpha-amino nitrogen in sprouted chickpea flour. During sprouting, several enzymes involved in plant development were newly expressed. An ex vivo model of gastroduodenal and jejunal digestion was applied to assess the bioaccessibility of the protein digests. Proteins from chickpea sprouts showed a greater susceptibility to digestion with a 10% increase in alpha amino nitrogen. Peptides with potential immunoreactivity or bioactivity were catalogued in both digested chickpea sprouts and seeds using an in-silico approach. Peptides belonging to the non-specific transfer proteins, which are allergens in pulses, and peptides belonging to an IgE-binding hemagglutinin protein could only be identified in the digested chickpea sprouts. The observation collected paved the way to immune-based evaluations to assess the effect of germination on the allergenic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bifidobacterium adolescentis (ATCC 15703) was entrapped within microcapsules prepared using 10.00% (w/w) chickpea protein isolates cross-linked with 0.20% (w/v) of genipin, or in the presence of 0.20% (w/v) alginate or κ-carrageenan. After 2h at pH2.0/25°C, B. adolescentis within the capsules prepared with genipin, alginate and κ-carrageenan were significantly (p<0.05) reduced from ~8.0–8.5logCFUmL−1 to 1.8, 4.6 and 3.6logCFUmL−1, corresponding to D-values of 43.36±7.50min, 25.75±0.47min, and 32.23±1.28min, respectively. The volume mean diameter of formed protein capsules prepared with genipin, alginate and κ-carrageenan was 749.5±2.3μm, 21.9±1.2μm and 838.5±31.3μm, respectively. Capsules <100μm in diameter do not adversely affect sensory attributes, therefore only the chickpea protein–alginate design was tested further. The effect of alginate concentration (0.05, 0.10 and 0.20%, w/w) added to chickpea protein capsules were investigated for their ability to protect B. adolescentis. After 2h at pH2.0/25°C, the viable cell numbers (logCFUmL−1) decreased from ~8.0 to ~5.7 (D-value of 77.99±6.93min), ~6.4 (D-value of 185.50±38.8min) and ~4.6 (D-value of 43.36±7.50min) for chickpea protein with capsules with 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.20% (w/w) alginate, respectively. The number of surviving free and entrapped B. adolescentis cells after incubation in synthetic gastric juice at pH2.5/37°C revealed that encapsulation with 10% of chickpea protein–0.1% of alginate improved survival by 5.5 times, with D-values of 106.31±17.03min (entrapped cells) versus 18.98±0.29 (free cells)) over 2h. The release of encapsulated B. adolescentis within simulated intestinal fluid at pH6.5⁄37°C over 3h indicated that after the first 5min, almost all of the entrapped B. adolescentis (~7.8logCFUmL−1) cells were released, yielding free cell counts of ~7.1logCFUmL−1, followed by no further release. Encapsulation of B. adolescentis within chickpea protein–alginate microcapsules using emulsion technology allows probiotics to be protected against a simulated gastrointestinal environment, indicating their potential use in food and/or medical applications. Findings from this study suggest that chickpea protein–alginate capsule designs could serve as a suitable probiotic carrier intended for food applications due to its size (<100μm) and ability to protect acid-sensitive microorganisms under simulated gastric conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical composition of various parts of the Chickpea plant, biological activities and functional molecular mechanism associated with these constituents of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). [Display omitted] • Chickpea contains various beneficial and abundant compounds. • The bioactivities have been observed in different parts of the chickpea plant. • The evidence is based on in vitro and in vivo studies of chickpea. • The synergistic and antagonistic effects between chickpea components are essential. • The functional form of the substances in humans should be given great attention. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an annual plant of the Fabaceae family, is mainly grown in temperate and semiarid regions. Its biological activity and beneficial contribution to human health have been scientifically confirmed as an essential source of nutritional components. The objective of this review was to summarize and update latest available scientific data and information, on bioactive components in chickpea, bio-activities, and molecular mechanisms, which has mainly focused on the detection of relevant biochemical indicators, the regulation of signaling pathways, essential genes and proteins. The studies have shown that chickpea have significant multifunctional activities, which are closely related to the functionally active small molecule peptides and phytochemicals of chickpea. Significantly, numerous studies have only addressed the functional activity and mechanisms of single active components of chickpea, however, overlooking the synergy and antagonism between chickpea components, changes of functional active components in different processing methods, as well as the active form of the substances after human digestion and metabolism. Additionally, due to limitations in research methods and techniques, the structure of most functional active substances have not been determined, which makes it difficult to conduct interaction mechanism studies. Consequently, the significant bio-activity of the functional components of chickpea, synergistic and antagonistic effects and activity differences between bioactive components should be further studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The physicochemical and functional properties of protein concentrates from peas, lentils, navy beans, chickpeas, and defatted chickpeas were investigated. Protein concentrates were prepared using a laboratory wet milling procedure. Chemical composition and colour of the protein concentrates were significantly different among the various pulses. Functional properties of the chickpea protein concentrates, including water hydration capacity, foaming capacity, and emulsion capacity, were improved significantly after a defatting step was added prior to the fractionation process. Navy bean protein concentrate had the largest foaming capacity, whilst chickpea protein concentrates had the smallest. Protein concentrates from lentils had the most stable foams after 120min, whilst those from chickpeas had the least stable foams. Navy bean protein concentrate also had the highest emulsion capacity, whilst pea protein concentrates had the poorest. Protein content of the protein concentrates was positively correlated, whilst the fat content was negatively correlated with foaming capacity (r=0.663, p<0.001 and r=−0.712, p<0.001, respectively). Water hydration capacity of the protein concentrates was significantly correlated with ash content (r=0.597, p<0.01), fat absorption (r=0.535, p<0.01), foaming capacity (r=0.775, p<0.001) and foam stability at 120min (r=0.595, p<0.01). Ash content and foaming capacity were significantly correlated with emulsion capacity (r=0.497, p<0.05, and r=0.552, p<0.01, respectively). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Three protein sequences, chickpea legumin α- and β-subunits [Cicer arietinum] (NCBI accession number: gi|6273402), oat 12S seed storage globulin 1 (NCBI accession number: gi|134918) and rice glutelin precursor [Oryza sativa (japonica cultivar-group)] (NCBI accession number: gi|62546207) were chosen for sequence alignments using BLAST analysis. The sequence alignments gave approximately 30% similarity of AA sequences with chickpea legumin vs. oat 12S globulin 1 and chickpea legumin vs. rice glutelin precursor; the oat 12S globulin 1 and rice glutelin precursor exhibited relatively high sequence homology of 63%. In silico, BIOPEP results showed that the chickpea legumin and provicilin precursor demonstrated either di- or tri-peptides with a total of 177 and 133 potential angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides, respectively. Ficain and proteinase K were the proposed proteases that could theoretically release greater numbers of predicted ACE-inhibitory peptides (34 and 35, respectively) from chickpea legumin and provicilin precursor; in addition, the simulation of human gastrointestinal digestion using a combination of pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin A could liberate a sum of 23 predicted ACE-inhibitory peptides from these two proteins. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a nutritious pulse crop primarily produced for human consumption. The present study was carried out to determine the potential for mineral micronutrient biofortification of chickpea to improve human micronutrient nutrition. Our results using 10 commercially grown USA chickpea genotypes show that chickpea is a rich source of selenium (Se=15.3–56.3μg/100g), iron (Fe=4.6–6.7mg/100g), zinc (Zn=3.7–7.4mg/100g), calcium (Ca=93.4–197.4mg/100g), magnesium (Mg=125.1–158.7mg/100g), potassium (K=732.2–1125.5mg/100g), copper (Cu=0.7–1.1mg/100g), and phosphorus (P=2627–3703mg/kg). Thus, a single serving of chickpea could provide a significant amount of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of numerous minerals. In addition, chickpea is a rich source of carotenoids, including xanthophyll (9.0–19.7mg/100g), canthoxanthine (21.0–67.9mg/100g), and beta-carotene (166–431μg/100g), which can increase mineral absorption in the human digestive system. Chickpea is also a good source of bio-beneficial quercetin and ferulic acid and is low in phytic acid (PA; 5.8–13.6mg/g). Overall, chickpea is a good source of micronutrients. Selection of genetic material to enrich micronutrients in conjunction with the choice of growing location may enable development of chickpea-based whole food solutions to global micronutrient malnutrition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Antioxidant activity of aqueous hull extracts of commonly consumed legumes in India namely Vigna radiata (mung bean), Cicer arietinum (Bengal gram) and Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) was studied by several in vitro assays. The extracts showed high phenolic content and excellent DPPH scavenging activity (75–85%) at very low concentration. The IC50 values for superoxide radical scavenging activity was also low (85–150μg/ml). The antioxidant activity coefficient as determined by β-carotene bleaching assay was very high (828–1086). The hull extracts also exhibited high reducing power indicating good antioxidant potential. Of the extracts studied pigeon pea hull extract had the highest antioxidant activity. It also exhibited good antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus. This study indicated that legume hulls have good antioxidant potential comparable to the synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxy toluene and could therefore have application in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Albumin, globulin and glutelin fractions were prepared from chickpea and oat seeds using sequential extractions. Molecular characteristics of individual protein fractions were investigated using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) in combination with proteomic techniques. SDS-PAGE results revealed that chickpea albumin and globulin fractions (C-Ab and C-Gb) showed protein bands with molecular weights (MWs) related to subunits of legumin (11S globulin) and pea vicilin (7S globulin); oat protein fractions (O-Ab, O-Gb and O-Gt) showed most protein bands with MWs related to subunits of oat 12S globulin (avenalin). With proteomic analysis, eighteen tryptic peptides from chickpea globulin fraction showed sequence homology that corresponded to chickpea legumin α- and β-subunit (NCBI accession number: gi|6273402; theoretical mass 56,216Da) while sixteen tryptic peptides from chickpea albumin fraction (C-Ab) were identified as chickpea provicilin precursor (NCBI accession number: gi|82173888; theoretical mass 51,390Da); fifteen tryptic peptides from oat protein fractions were identified with origin from oat 12S seed storage globulin 1 (NCBI accession number: gi|134918; theoretical mass 58,508Da). The identified tryptic peptide, ALIVPQNFAIAAK, was commonly found in chickpea glutelin fraction (C-Gt), rice glutelin fraction (R-Gt), and oat albumin, globulin and glutelin fractions (O-Ab, O-Gb and O-Gt). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The emulsifying (emulsion capacity, EC; emulsion activity/stability indices, EAI–ESI and creaming stability, CS) and physicochemical properties (surface charge/hydrophobicity, protein solubility, interfacial tension, and droplet size) of chickpea (ChPI), faba bean (FbPI), lentil (LPI), and pea (PPI) protein isolates produced by isoelectric precipitation and salt extraction were investigated relative to each other and a soy protein isolate (SPI). Both the legume source and method of isolate production showed significant effects on the emulsifying and physicochemical properties of the proteins tested. All legume proteins carried a net negative charge at neutral pH, and had surface hydrophobicity values ranging between 53.0 and 84.8 (H0-ANS), with PPI showing the highest value. Isoelectric precipitation resulted in isolates with higher surface charge and solubility compared to those produced via salt extraction. The EC values ranged between 476 and 542g oil/g protein with LPI showing the highest capacity. Isoelectric-precipitated ChPI and LPI had relatively high surface charges (~−22.3mV) and formed emulsions with smaller droplet sizes (~1.6μm), they also displayed high EAI (~46.2m2/g), ESI (~84.9min) and CS (98.6%) results, which were comparable to the SPI. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Pulses are rich in nutrients. The existence of anti-nutritional components and the length of time required for preparation have, however, limited their frequency of use compared to recommended intake levels. Anti-nutritional components in pulses can be largely removed by heat treatment. Additionally pre-treatment of pulses with heat and processing of seeds into flour could further enhance their use by decreasing processing and preparation times. In this study, trypsin inhibitor activity, functional properties, and microstructural characteristics of flours prepared from different varieties of lentil, chickpea, and pea as affected by roasting and boiling were evaluated. Both thermal treatments resulted in significant reduction (p <0.05) in trypsin inhibitor activity ranging from −95.6% to −37.8%. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed that the roasted pulse flours had similar microstructure (i.e., starch granule and protein matrix structure) to the raw samples. For the pre-boiled flours, amorphous flakes were observed by SEM with no presence of intact starch granules. This is likely due to gelatinization of starch during cooking. Interestingly, flours treated by boiling exhibited significantly higher (p <0.05) fat binding capacity, water holding capacity, and gelling capacity, while protein solubility was significantly reduced compared to the raw and roasted pulse flours. Overall, thermal treatments either had no impact or impacted to different extents the emulsifying and foaming properties of the flours. Our results suggest that thermally-treated pulse flours may have very good potential to be used as value-added food ingredients for food applications due to their improved nutritional value and, in some instances, superior functionality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The physicochemical and functional properties of the fibre fractions from peas (Pisum sativum), lentils (Lens culinaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) and navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) were evaluated, and the relationships amongst those properties were determined. Fibre fractions from several varieties of each species were prepared using a laboratory wet milling procedure. The fibre fractions contained 663.2 to 808.5g/kg DM of total dietary fibre, 45.4 to 171.1g/kg DM of crude protein, 102.7 to 195.6g/kg DM of starch and 1.9 to 10.5g/kg DM of crude fat. Fibre fractions from pea and kabuli chickpea displayed significant higher fat absorption (FA) than those from lentil, navy bean and desi chickpea. Lentil and navy bean fibre fractions exhibited larger mean particle size than did pea and chickpea fibre fractions. Pulse fibre fractions exhibited significantly higher water hydration, swelling and water retention capacities in comparison to commercial pea fibre products. A significant reverse relationship (r=−0.956, p<0.001) between mean particle size and specific surface area (SpSA) of pulse fibre fractions was observed. FA of fibre fractions was positively correlated with SpSA (r=0.820, p<0.001). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Native starches isolated from borlotti bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), chickpea (Cicer ariteninum L.), and white kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was modified by pyrodextrinization (PD), cross-linking with sodium trimetaphosphate (CL), heat–moisture treatment (HMT), and gelatinization–retrogradation (GR) process. The effects of these modifications on the nutritionally important starch fractions, namely rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS), were studied in both uncooked and cooked starches. Solubility, swelling power and gelatinization parameters of the native and modified starches were also studied. PD, CL, and HMT reduced the swelling power of all three legume starches. Significant increases in solubility were observed after PD and CL, where GR decreased the solubility of all starches. CL and HMT shifted the onset temperature of gelatinization (To) to a higher temperature and tended to decrease the gelatinization enthalpies (ΔH). PD and GR starches has the largest proportion of RDS (39–69%) among uncooked starches where the RDS percentage of uncooked native, CL and HMT starches were only between 2–7%. Compared with native starches, all the modifications applied tended to decrease the RDS percentage of cooked starches. The highest decrease in RDS was determined after GR treatment for all the legume starches studied. The total SDS+RS, the two starch fractions that have nutritional benefits, content of GR and HMT starches were notably higher than the CL and PD starches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: ACE inhibitory activity was studied for different hydrolysates obtained from protein concentrates of chickpea (kabuli and desi) and yellow pea (Golden) using in vitro gastrointestinal simulation, alcalase/flavourzyme, and papain. Protein/peptide profiles studied by SDS–PAGE and SE-HPLC, showed a rich composition of the hydrolysates in small peptides having MWs under 4kDa. Papain hydrolysed yellow pea proteins showed the highest ACE inhibitory activity. In addition, chickpea desi proteins hydrolysed by in vitro gastrointestinal simulation showed higher ACE inhibition (IC50 of 140±1μg/ml) compared to its digests obtained by alcalase/flavourzyme (IC50 of 228±3μg/ml) or papain (IC50 of 180±1μg/ml) and to chickpea kabuli hydrolysed by gastrointestinal simulation (IC50 of 229±1μg/ml). The results demonstrate that enzymatic hydrolysates of chickpea and pea proteins contain bioactive ACE inhibitory peptides; furthermore, the type of enzyme used for hydrolysis affects the ACE inhibitory activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Bioactive peptides in foods may have health-promoting properties, including effects on cell proliferation. The goal of this study was to determine whether physiological digestion of chickpea protein using pepsin and pancreatin could release this type of peptides. The THP-1 and Caco-2 cell lines were used as in vitro models to determine the effects of the hydrolysates on cell proliferation. Hydrolysates with a high degree of hydrolysis inhibited the growth of Caco-2 cells by up to 45%, suggesting that chickpea-derived peptides might inhibit the growth of tumors in the colon. Proliferation of THP-1 cells was inhibited by up to 78% by direct exposure to the hydrolysates. Nevertheless, bioavailability experiments using differentiated Caco-2 cells as a model of the intestinal barrier, in co-culture with THP-1 cells, showed that proliferation of the monocytic THP-1 cells was actually enhanced by up to 66%, which could represent an immunomodulatory activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to study the effects of feed moisture content (16–18%), screw speed (250–320rpm), and barrel temperature (150–170°C) on extruder system parameters (product temperature, die pressure, motor torque, specific mechanical energy, SME) and physical properties (expansion, bulk density, hardness) of a chickpea flour-based snack. Second-order polynomials were used to model the extruder responses and product properties as a function of process variables. Product temperature and die pressure were affected by all three process variables, while motor torque and SME were only influenced by screw speed and barrel temperature. All three variables affected product responses significantly. Desirable products, characterized by high expansion ratio and low bulk density and hardness, were obtained at low feed moisture, high screw speed and medium to high barrel temperature. It was demonstrated that chickpeas can be used to produce nutritious snacks with desirable expansion and texture properties. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With nearly two million North Americans suffering gluten intolerance, the objective of this study was to develop gluten-free, pulse-based cracker snacks that exploit the anti-allergenic and health-enhancing nature of pulses ingredients. Nine commercially available pulse fractions (chickpea, green and red lentil, yellow pea, pinto and navy bean flours and pea protein, starch and fibre isolates) were evaluated in a model cracker formulation. Early prototype crackers exhibited light colour, good flavour, and crisp texture. Based on its acceptability data, processing characteristics and consultation with an industry partner, the chickpea cracker formulation was advanced to a commercial-scale processing trial. The physical and nutritional characteristics of these pulse crackers were similar to existing products on the market. The products were scored highly during consumer acceptance testing. Interestingly, the % daily values per serving of iron in the chickpea crackers were 3–6 times higher than existing products. Based on these findings, pulse-based, gluten-free crackers have good potential for both consumer appeal and imparting health benefits. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The suitability of chickpea grown in Western-Canada was studied in a low-fat (fat <5%) emulsion-type meat product as a model. Six high-yielding chickpea varieties were screened and one Kabuli and Desi variety were selected for testing in a meat system. The physiochemical, textural and sensory properties of low-fat pork bologna extended with chickpea flour (or pea and wheat flour as comparisons) at 2.5% and 5.0% were investigated. Inclusion of chickpea flour improved the product’s instrumental and sensory texture properties. Bologna with added Kabuli and Desi chickpea flour performed similar to the control (no added binder) for most flavour properties. However, panelists noted more foreign-flavours with addition of wheat and pea flour at 5.0%. This study shows that chickpea flour is a potential source of high protein flour for use as an extender in emulsified meat products due to its superior technological functionality and minimal effects on flavour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of cooking on levels of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors in beans and chickpeas was investigated. Significant (p <0.05) variation existed among the beans and chickpeas with respect to their crude protein, starch, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), mineral, phytic acid, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) contents. Cooking beans and chickpeas in water significantly increased protein, starch, SDF, IDF, TDF, Mn and P contents (on a dry weight basis), whereas reduced ash, K, Mg, TIA, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide contents were observed. Colored beans (black, cranberry, dark red kidney, pinto and small red bean) contained tannins, whereas little tannin in white-colored beans (great northern and white pea bean) and chickpeas (Desi and Kabuli type) was detected. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The subunit, amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility of the two protein isolates (GCPI and ZCPI) from one kabuli and one desi chickpea cultivars, grown extensively in Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, were investigated and compared with those of soy protein isolate (SPI). SDS–PAGE showed that GCPI and ZCPI had almost the same band components under the reduced and unreduced conditions, with only minor difference in relative quantity for some bands, but different from that of SPI. The sulphur-containing amino acids were the first limiting amino acids for all three protein isolates of GCPI (2.11g/100g), ZCPI (2.20g/100g) and SPI (1.99g/100g). Amino acid score of the three protein isolates could reach the FAO/WHO requirement (1990) for the essential amino acids for preschool children. The order of in vitro digestibility was GCPI (87.47%)>ZCPI (80.82%)>SPI (71.04%). Our results indicated that, compared with soybean protein isolate, Chinese kabuli and desi chickpea protein isolates had higher digestibility value, and chickpea protein, especially for kabuli protein, could be utilized as a good source of protein for human nutrition. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study, two methods, isoelectric precipitation (IEP) and ultrafiltration (UF) were optimised for the extraction of proteins from yellow pea, desi and kabuli chickpeas, red and green lentils. For IEP, the following optimal extraction conditions were used: pH 9.5, 1/15 solid/liquid ratio, 35°C for yellow pea, desi and kabuli chickpeas, and pH 9.0, 1/10 solid/liquid ratio, 25°C for red and green lentils. UF experiments were performed with a 50kDa MWCO membrane with diafiltration (4X) at pH 6.0. The initial protein content of the pulses (16.7–24.8%, w/w) was concentrated nearly 4-fold. UF process generated concentrates with slightly higher protein contents (69.1–88.6%, w/w) compared to the IEP process (63.9–81.7%, w/w). Yields for both processes on a protein basis ranged from 50.3% to 69.1% (w/w). All concentrates exhibited good functional properties. However, functional properties varied to some extent as a function of the type of pulse and manufacturing process. For pH ranging from 1 to 3 and from 7 to 10, the red and green lentil concentrates were the most soluble (70–77%) and their UF concentrates were more soluble at all pH values studied compared to the IEP samples which was not the case for the pea and chickpea samples. Water holding capacity was highest for IEP-processed yellow pea and lowest for the UF-processed desi and kabuli chickpeas. Emulsifying properties and foam expansion were generally higher for the chickpea concentrates but they had less foam stability. Protein extracts from green lentils appeared to have the best gelling properties. The results highlight the technological potential of pulse protein extracts for food applications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study on hydration kinetics of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in water at different temperature was conducted to assess the adequacy of models to describe absorption phenomena during soaking. The diffusion coefficient values calculated using two different forms of Fick’s second law were all of the order of 10−9 m2/s. Peleg, Weibull and Exponential models were fitted to the soaked sample data. Adequacy of models was determined using coefficient of determination (R 2), root mean square error (RMSE) and chi-square (χ 2). The variation in moisture content of chickpea splits at different temperatures during hydration depicts an initial high rate of moisture absorption in the primary phase followed by slower absorption during the relaxation or secondary phase of hydration. The linearity in the curve during the initial stages of moisture absorption showed the uptake process was diffusion controlled. The results of non-linear regression analysis of fitting the models revealed that the Peleg model described the process of hydration better than did the other two models with R 2 ⩾99.06%, RMSE⩽2.95 and χ 2 ⩽0.001 for all the fitted models. Temperature had a positive and significant effect on the water absorption capacities and absorption was an endothermic process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Pulses are a good source of dietary fibre and other important nutrients. Flours and fibre-rich fractions obtained from pulse crops can be incorporated into processed foods to increase dietary fibre content and/or serve as functional ingredients. This review focuses on research conducted in the past ten years on the non-starch polysaccharides and oligosaccharides found in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), lentils (Lens culinaris), and dry peas (Pisum sativum). The isolation, composition, and structure of these pulse fibres are described. Common terms used to describe the physicochemical properties of fibre fractions are defined and briefly discussed. Recent studies on the effects of processing on the ratio of insoluble to soluble dietary fibre and on the α-galacto-oligosaccharide content of pulses and fibre fractions are cited and summarized. Food applications for pulse fibre fractions and flours in fibre enrichment, nutrient enrichment, fat binding and retention, and texture modification, as well as some non-food applications, are reviewed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Pulse crops are cool season, annually grown legume crops, which are harvested for their seeds. They are invaluable agricultural commodities which are produced and imported by many regions of the world. Pulse seeds are a valuable source of dietary protein, carbohydrates, fiber and an important source of essential vitamins and minerals. Their nutritional characteristics have been associated with a reduction in the incidence of various cancers, HDL cholesterol, type-2 diabetes and heart disease. Pulses also contain protein and non-protein antinutritional factors, which may cause deleterious effects on the host when the seeds or processed seeds are consumed raw. Conversely, recent studies have demonstrated that protein antinutritional compounds such as lectins, protease inhibitors and the non-antinutritional component, angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor may have beneficial properties. Lectins have been associated with reducing certain forms of cancer, activating innate defense mechanisms and managing obesity. Protease inhibitors such as trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors have been demonstrated to reduce the incidence of certain cancers and demonstrate potent anti-inflammatory properties. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor has been associated with a reduction in hypertension. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of controlled pepsin hydrolysis on antioxidant potential and fractional changes of chickpea protein extracts (CPE). The enzyme hydrolysis increased soluble protein content (1.2 to 2-fold) and free radical scavenging activity (1.9 to 3-fold) of hydrolyzed chickpea protein extract (HCPE), but almost unaffected its antioxidant potential in oil-in-water emulsion system and reduced its iron chelating capacity (1.3-fold) and functional properties. The chromatographic fractions of CPE are mainly acidic, while those of HCPE are mainly basic and neutral. The majority of chickpea proteins had pI between 4.5 and 5.5, and molecular weight (MW) between 15 and 40kDa, while MW of their pepsin hydrolysis products ranged between 6.5 and 14.2kDa. The main antioxidant proteins in CPE and HCPE fractionated by ultrafiltration had MW greater than 30kDa and between 2 and 10kDa, respectively. The chickpea proteins and hydrolysates showed different potentials as functional food ingredients. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Starch from four cultivars (CDC Xena, CDC Flip 97-133C, CDC 418-59, CDC ICC 12512-9) of chickpea (cicer arietinum L.) grown in Saskatchewan, Canada was isolated and variability in composition, morphology, molecular structure and physicochemical properties was evaluated. The yield of starch was in the range 32.0–36.8% on a whole seed basis. The starch granules were oval to spherical with smooth surfaces. The granule size distribution ranged from 5 to 35μm. The free lipid, bound lipid, total amylose and the amount of amylose complexed with native starch lipids ranged from 0.04% to 0.08%, 0.21% to 0.46%, 33.9% to 40.2% and 9.1% to 15.9%, respectively. There was no significant difference in branch chain length distribution of amylopectin among the starches. The X-ray pattern was of the C-type. The relative crystallinity was in the range 31.3–34.4%. Swelling factor and amylose leaching in the temperature range 50–90°C ranged from 1.6% to 25.9% and 8.61% to 36.1%, respectively. All four starches exhibited nearly identical gelatinization temperatures. However, the enthalpy of gelatinization was in the range 11.2–13.1J/g, respectively. The starches differed significantly with respect to peak viscosity (3223–4174cp), breakdown viscosity (394–1308cp) and set-back (3110–4281cp). Starches were hydrolyzed by acid to nearly the same extent. The amount of rapidly digestible, slowly digestible and resistant starch contents ranged from 10.9% to 15.7%, 48.5% to 60.2% and 24.1% to 40.6%, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]