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Ejecta microjets offer an experimental methodology to study high-speed particle laden-flow interactions, as microjets consist of millions of particulates traveling at velocities of several kilometers per second and are easily generated by most common shock drives. Previous experiments on the OMEGA Extended Performance laser found that collisions between two counter-propagating laser-driven tin ejecta microjets varied as a function of drive pressure; jets generated near shock pressures of 10 GPa passed through each other without interacting, whereas jets generated at shock pressures of over 100 GPa interacted strongly, forming a cloud around the center interaction point. In this paper, we present a more systematic scan of tin ejecta microjet collisions over intermediate pressure regimes to identify how and at what shock pressure interaction behavior onsets. Radiographs of interacting microjets at five different laser drive energies qualitatively demonstrate that interaction behavior onsets slowly as a function of laser drive energy. Quantitative mass and density metrics from each radiograph provide trends on jet characteristics and collisional mass dispersion. It is observed that jetting mass, jet densities, and mass dispersion increase with increasing drive pressures and that the increased jet density at the higher drive energies may account for the increased mass dispersion. This work provides an important step in the understanding of tin ejecta microjet collisions and paves the way for future studies on the physics dominating high-speed particle-laden flow interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experiments accessing extreme conditions at x-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) involve rapidly evolving conditions of temperature. Here, we report time-resolved, direct measurements of temperature using spectral streaked optical pyrometry of x-ray and optical laser-heated states at the High Energy Density instrument of the European XFEL. This collection of typical experiments, coupled with numerical models, outlines the reliability, precision, and meaning of time dependent temperature measurements using optical emission at XFEL sources. Dynamic temperatures above 1500 K are measured continuously from spectrally- and temporally-resolved thermal emission at 450–850 nm, with time resolution down to 10–100 ns for 1–200 μ s streak camera windows, using single shot and integrated modes. Targets include zero-pressure foils free-standing in air and in vacuo, and high-pressure samples compressed in diamond anvil cell multi-layer targets. Radiation sources used are 20-fs hard x-ray laser pulses at 17.8 keV, in single pulses or 2.26 MHz pulse trains of up to 30 pulses, and 250-ns infrared laser single pulses. A range of further possibilities for optical measurements of visible light in x-ray laser experiments using streak optical spectroscopy are also explored, including for the study of x-ray induced optical fluorescence, which often appears as background in thermal radiation measurements. We establish several scenarios where combined emissions from multiple sources are observed and discuss their interpretation. Challenges posed by using x-ray lasers as non-invasive probes of the sample state are addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laser-shock compression experiments at 3rd and 4th generation light sources generally employ phase plates, which are inserted into the beamline to achieve a repeatable intensity distribution at the focal plane. Here, the laser intensity profile is characterized by a high-contrast, high-frequency laser speckle. Without sufficient smoothing, these laser non-uniformities can translate to a significant pressure distribution within the sample layer and can affect data interpretation in x-ray diffraction experiments. Here, we use a combination of one- and two-dimensional velocity interferometry to directly measure the extent to which spatial frequencies within the laser focal spot intensity pattern are smoothed out during propagation within the laser plasma and a polyimide ablator. We find that the use of thicker polyimide layers results in spatially smoother shock fronts, with the greatest degree of smoothing associated with the highest spatial frequencies. Focal spots with the smallest initial speckle separation produce the most rapid smoothing. Laser systems that employ smoothing by spectral dispersion techniques to rapidly modulate the focal plane intensity distribution are shown to be the most effective ones in producing a spatially smooth shock front. We show that a simple transport model combined with the known polyimide Hugoniot adequately describes the extent of shock smoothness as a function of polyimide thickness. Our results provide a description of spatial structure smoothing across a shock front, which can be used to design targets on x-ray free electron laser facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phase diagram of sodium chloride (NaCl) under laser shock compression has been studied at Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at the x-ray free-electron laser facility. Both solid–solid (B1 → B2) and solid–liquid (B2 → liquid) transitions have been observed along the Hugoniot over nanosecond time scales. By combining structural measurements through in situ x-ray diffraction, pressure determination through velocimetry, and a thermal equation-of-state, the shock-compressed data are used to constrain the phase diagram of NaCl. Transformation into the B2 phase is found to occur at 28(2) GPa, and B2–liquid coexistence is observed between 54(4) and 66(6) GPa, with near full melt at 66(6) GPa. Late-time pressure release from an initial shocked B2-state results in a B2 → B1 back transformation. Our results show agreement with previous static compression data, suggesting that the time scale for melting is very rapid and that equilibrium states in NaCl are being accessed over nanosecond time scales. A multiphase equation-of-state description of NaCl incorporated into a one-dimensional hydrocode is used to interpret pressure and temperature evolution over these rapid time scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solid-state material at high pressure is prevalent throughout the Universe, and an understanding of the structure of matter under such extreme conditions, gleaned from x-ray diffraction, has been pursued for the best part of a century. The highest pressures that can be reached to date (2 TPa) in combination with x-ray diffraction diagnosis have been achieved by dynamic compression via laser ablation [A. Lazicki et al., Nature 589, 532–535 (2021)]. The past decade has witnessed remarkable advances in x-ray technologies, with novel x-ray Free-Electron-Lasers (FELs) affording the capacity to produce high quality single-shot diffraction data on timescales below 100 fs. We provide a brief history of the field of dynamic compression, spanning from when the x-ray sources were almost always laser-plasma based, to the current state-of-the art diffraction capabilities provided by FELs. We give an overview of the physics of dynamic compression, diagnostic techniques, and the importance of understanding how the rate of compression influences the final temperatures reached. We provide illustrative examples of experiments performed on FEL facilities that are starting to give insight into how materials deform at ultrahigh strain rates, their phase diagrams, and the types of states that can be reached. We emphasize that there often appear to be differences in the crystalline phases observed between the use of static and dynamic compression techniques. We give our perspective on both the current state of this rapidly evolving field and some glimpses of how we see it developing in the near-to-medium term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies show a face-centered cubic (fcc) to body-centered cubic (bcc) transformation along the shock Hugoniot for several metals (i.e., Cu, Au, and Ag). Here, we combine laser-shock compression of Cu foils on nanosecond timescales with in situ x-ray diffraction (XRD) to examine the microstructural changes with stress. We study the fcc phase and the phase transition from fcc to bcc (pressures greater than 180 GPa). Textural analysis of the azimuthal intensities from the XRD images is consistent with transformation into the bcc phase through the Pitsch-distortion mechanism. We use embedded atom model molecular dynamics simulations to determine the stability of the bcc phase in pressure–temperature space. Our results indicate that the bcc phase is stabilized only at high temperatures and remains stable at pressures greater than 500 GPa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present measurements of diamond formation in doubly shocked Stycast 1266 epoxy (comprising C, H, Cl, N, and O) using in situ x-ray diffraction. Epoxy samples were reshocked against a LiF window to pressures between 80 and 148 GPa in experiments at the Omega Laser Facility. The pressure and temperature conditions were diagnosed in situ using velocimetry and optical pyrometry, respectively. X-ray diffraction patterns of the compressed epoxy are consistent with cubic diamond (Fd 3 ¯ m), indicating that diamond can precipitate not only from twice-shocked CH polystyrene [Kraus et al. Nat. Astron. 1, 606 (2017)] at these conditions but also from twice-shocked CH polymers with the addition of oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine. These results, in combination with previous works on CH, CH 2 , CH 4 , and methane hydrate, support that diamond often, but not always, forms from CH-based compounds at extreme pressures and temperatures, indicating that the chemical composition, thermodynamic compression path, and kinetics play an important role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work presents a structural study of shock-compressed states in Ag to 331 GPa, accessed via laser shock compression. Structures of the resulting crystalline phases and the average atomic distribution of the liquid state are determined using in situ x-ray diffraction. We employ structure factor analysis, adapted for a non-monochromatic x-ray source, to determine the density of the liquid phase from analysis of x-ray diffraction data for the first time in shock compressed Ag. We also present a detailed analysis of the crystalline phases, which shows good agreement with the phase boundaries reported in previous experimental and theoretical works. We utilize the whole powder pattern fitting approach implemented in the MAUD package to constrain stacking faults in the face centered cubic structure. We observe the ambient fcc structure up to a stress of 146 GPa before a transition to a body-centered cubic structure and liquid phase at 179 GPa, with full melting above 212 GPa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quasi-isentropic (ramp) compression is now a well-established experimental method and so are the analysis techniques to give Lagrangian sound speed, pressure, and density along the sample material's isentrope. A shock followed by ramp compression is a natural extension to investigate, for example, shock melt and refreeze on compression, or isentropes of states off the Hugoniot or principal isentrope. In practice, graded-density impactors produce initial shocks, compression by shaped laser pulses may be unable to produce a smooth pressure increase from zero, and incidental perturbations on the drive pulse may also give rise to shocks, so robust shock-ramp analysis methods will be needed. Appropriate analysis methods are needed for shock-ramp experiments, based on those for quasi-isentropic compression, and these require validation. This paper describes three different analyses of a shock-ramp test problem, including an assessment of their estimated errors. The methods tested were based on hydrodynamic characteristics or integration backward in space. All methods gave the known Lagrangian sound speed to within ∼1%, and pressure and volume to within less than 2% and 1%, demonstrating that the analysis methods of isentropic compression experiments can be confidently extended to the analysis of shock and ramp compression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding dynamic fragmentation in shock-loaded metals and predicting properties of the resulting ejecta are of considerable importance for both basic and applied science. The nature of material ejection has been shown to change drastically when the free surface melts on compression or release. In this work, we present hydrodynamic simulations of laser-driven microjetting from micron-scale grooves on a tin surface. We study microjet formation across a range of shock strengths from drives that leave the target solid after release to drives that induce shock melting in the target. The shock-state particle velocity (U p) varies from 0.3 to 3 km/s and the shock breakout pressure is 3–120 GPa. The microjet tip velocity is 1–8 km/s and the free-surface velocity varies from 0.1 to 5 km/s. Two tin equations of state are examined: a "soft" model (LEOS 501) where the target melts for U p > --> 1 km/s and a more detailed multiphase model (SESAME 2161) that melts for U p > --> 1.4 km/s. We use these two models to examine the influence of phase change and the choice of the material model on microjet formation and evolution. We observe in our computational results that jet formation can be classified into three regimes: a low-energy regime where material strength affects jet formation, a moderate-energy regime dominated by the changing phase of tin material, and a high-energy regime where results are insensitive to the material model and jet formation is described by an idealized steady-jet theory. Using an ensemble of 2D simulations, we show that these trends hold across a wide range of drive energies and groove angles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present laser-driven shock Hugoniot measurements of single-crystal (SC) 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) between 15 and 83 GPa, spanning pressures below and well above the Chapman–Jouguet pressure of ∼ 28 GPa for TATB formulations (TATB grains mixed with plastic binders at 5–10 wt. %). The new SC data are generally ∼ 3% more compressible than previously published data on neat and formulated TATB measured in gas-gun and explosive-driven experiments. An exception is at compressions in the density of ∼ 1.5 (∼ 30–40 GPa), where our new SC data exhibit significantly lower pressures than previous results on overdriven TATB formulations, suggesting that our SC samples remain largely unreacted below 35 GPa over the short nanosecond-time scales inherent to our laser-driven experiments. These novel equation-of-state measurements are a critical step toward understanding TATB in its most fundamental form and improving predictive modeling of TATB-based explosives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High entropy oxides (HEOs) are a recently introduced class of oxide materials, which are characterized by a large number of elements (i.e., five or more) sharing one lattice site, which crystallize in a single phase structure. One complex example of the rather young HEO family is the rare-earth transition metal perovskite high entropy oxides. In this comprehensive study, we provide an overview of the magnetic properties of three perovskite type high entropy oxides. The compounds have a rare-earth site that is occupied by five different rare-earth elements, while the transition metal site is occupied by a single transition metal. In this way, a comparison to the parent binary oxides, namely, the orthocobaltites, -chromites, and -ferrites, is possible. X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy, magnetometry, and Mössbauer spectroscopy are employed to characterize these complex materials. In general, we find surprising similarities to the magnetic properties of the binary oxides despite the chemical disorder on the rare-earth site. However, distinct differences and interesting magnetic properties are also observed such as noncollinearity, spin reorientation transitions, and large coercive fields of up to 2 T at ambient temperature. Both the chemical disorder on the rare-earth A-site and the nature of the transitional metal on the B-site play an important role in the physical properties of these high entropy oxides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium fluoride (LiF) is a unique crystal possessing the largest reported bandgap of any material and is predicted to remain transparent to visible light under stresses in excess of 1000 GPa. Dynamic compression experiments often utilize LiF as a window material to maintain stress on a sample while enabling direct measurements of interface velocity. However, typical velocimetry diagnostics measure changes in the optical path length; therefore, an accurate understanding of LiF's equation of state and refractive index is needed. Here, we present a measurement of the LiF refractive index up to 900 GPa from a low-temperature ramp-compression experiment at the National Ignition Facility. To demonstrate propagation of optical uncertainty from this work to equation of state measurements, simulations in which a tin–LiF interface reaches a peak stress of 825 GPa show that the principal isentrope of tin can be determined up to 1450 GPa with a 1.2% uncertainty in density while considering uncertainties in the optical response of LiF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed an iterative forward analysis (IFA) technique with the ability to use hydrocode simulations as a fitting function for analysis of dynamic compression experiments. The IFA method optimizes over parameterized quantities in the hydrocode simulations, breaking the degeneracy of contributions to the measured material response. Velocity profiles from synthetic data generated using a hydrocode simulation are analyzed as a first-order validation of the technique. We also analyze multiple magnetically driven ramp compression experiments on copper and compare with more conventional techniques. Excellent agreement is obtained in both cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A method for producing quantitative estimates of systematic uncertainties generated in the analysis of impedance-match shock-wave data is described. An accurate impedance-match-shock-wave equation of state for Al to shock pressure of 3 TPa is given and used to estimate the systematic uncertainties.

A new method for detrermining the refractive index at high pressure of 4:1 methanol:ethanol was presented. The result showed that the new method increased the applicability of the measurements for secondary uses, allowed inferences to be made regarding electronic band structure and did exhibit any dependence on zero pressure index measurements. In addition, the technique can be modified to increase the maximum pressure and to improve the accuracy of the refractive index measurements.

Megabar (1 Mbar = 100GPa) laser shocks on precompressed samples allow reaching unprecedented high densities and moderately high ~103-104 K temperatures. We describe here a complete analysis framework for the velocimetry (VISAR) and pyrometry (SOP) data produced in these experiments. Since the precompression increases the initial density of both the sample of interest and the quartz reference for pressure-density, reflectivity, and temperature measurements, we describe analytical corrections based on available experimental data on warm dense silica and density-functional-theory based molecular dynamics computer simulations. Using our improved analysis framework, we report a re-analysis of previously published data on warm dense hydrogen and helium, compare the newly inferred pressure, density, and temperature data with most advanced equation of state models and provide updated reflectivity values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The iterative Lagrangian analysis (ILA) applied to free-surface velocity measurements of ramp-compressed samples is an established technique to determine the stress-density response of materials up to 50 Mbar pressures. In this work, we examine the accuracy of the ILA of ramp compression profiles with multiple shock waves present through the analysis of simulated compression profiles. The results presented indicate that ramp-compression data with weak shock waves can be analyzed using the ILA to quantitatively measure the absolute stress and density along the compression path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thin Fe and Al foils were ramp-compressed over several to tens of ns timescales to study the time-dependence associated with the onset of plastic flow. Peak stress states of 15-200 GPa were achieved through laser ramp-compression where the strain rate was varied, shot-to-shot, between 106 to 108 s-1. Our data combined with data from other dynamic compression platforms reveals a strong correlation between the peak elastic precursor stress, σE, and the strain rate at the onset of plastic flow, &eh;p. In fcc Al, phonon drag dislocation flow dominates above &eh;p~103s-1 and σE ∼ 0.03 GPa where σE scales as &eh;p0.43. By contrast, the Al alloy 6061-T6 exhibits a relatively weak dependency of σE with &eh;p up to strain rates of ∼107 s-1. Our Fe data, reveals a sharp increase in σE at &eh;p>5×106s-1. This is consistent with a transition in plastic flow to a phonon drag regime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new technique to measure the refractive index of shocked materials is reported. The arrival of a transparent shock at the free surface of an optical window generates a discontinuity in the observed interferometry record. In this work, we show that the magnitude of that discontinuity is simply defined by the shock velocity, the shocked refractive, and the free-surface velocity. This new technique, to measure the high-pressure refractive index of a transparent material, is demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The instantaneous scaling of ablation pressure to laser intensity is directly inferred for ramp compression of diamond targets irradiated by 351-nm light. Continuously increasing pressure profiles from 100 to 970 GPa are produced by direct-drive laser ablation at intensities up to 7 × 1013 W/cm2. The free-surface velocity on the rear of the target is used to directly infer the instantaneous ablation-pressure profile at the front of the target. The laser intensity on target is determined by laser power measurements and fully characterized laser spots. The ablation pressure is found to depend on the laser intensity as P(GPa)=42(±3)[I(TW/cm2)]0.71(±0.01). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the highest pressure under which a transparent insulator has been observed. The refractive index of ramp-compressed lithium fluoride (LiF) is measured up to a pressure of 800 GPa and is observed to maintain its linear dependence on density. An effective single-oscillator model infers that the bandgap monotonically closes with increasing density, indicating that metallization of LiF should occur at pressures above 4000 GPa, and that LiF should remain transparent at extremely high pressures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A stochastic description is applied in order to understand how ferroelectric structures can be formed. The predictions are compared with experimental data of the so-called electrical fixing: domains are patterned in photorefractive lithium niobate crystals by the combination of light-induced space-charge fields with externally applied electrical fields. In terms of our stochastic model, the probability for domain nucleation is modulated according to the sum of external and internal fields. The model describes the shape of the domain pattern as well as the effective degree of modulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shock-induced elastic-plastic deformation in pure aluminum is examined at 4 GPa peak stress by measuring wave profiles in thin samples under plate impact loading. The combination of large elastic wave attenuation in thin samples and differences in sample thicknesses has shown a consistent picture of shock propagation in pure aluminum where time-dependent elastic-plastic response is confined to material very near the impact surface.

We combine a recently developed high-resolution two-dimensional (2D) imaging velocimetry technique (velocity interferometer system for any reflector (VISAR)) with 1D VISAR measurements to construct a moving picture of heterogeneous deformation in shock-compressed single crystal silicon. The 2D VISAR takes an intensity snapshot of target velocity and reflectivity over a mm field-of-view while the compression history is simultaneously recorded by the 1D VISAR. Our data show particle velocity surface roughening due to the anisotropic onset of plasticity and, above ∼13 GPa, a structural phase transformation. Shock arrival at the Si free-surface is characterized by the formation of fracture networks and incipient velocity jetting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new absolute equation of state measurement technique is described and demonstrated measuring the shock state and the refractive index of MgO up to 226 GPa. This technique utilizes steady shock waves and the high-pressure transparency of MgO under dynamic shock compression and release. Hugoniot measurements performed using this technique are consistent with the previous measurements. A linear dependence of the shocked refractive index and density is observed up to 226 GPa, over a magnitude greater in pressure that previous studies. The transparency of MgO along the principal Hugoniot is higher than any other material reported to date. We observe a significant change in the refractive index of MgO as the Hugoniot elastic limit is exceeded due to the transition from uniaxial to hydrostatic strain. Measurements of the elastic-plastic two-wave structure in MgO indicate a nucleation time for plastic deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple thickness Fe foils were ramp compressed over several nanoseconds to pressure conditions relevant to the Earth's core. Using wave-profile analysis, the sound speed and the stress-density response were determined to a peak longitudinal stress of 273 GPa. The measured stress-density states lie between shock compression and 300-K static data, and are consistent with relatively low temperatures being achieved in these experiments. Phase transitions generally display time-dependent material response and generate a growing shock. We demonstrate for the first time that a low-pressure phase transformation (α-Fe to [variant_greek_epsilon]-Fe) can be overdriven by an initial steady shock to avoid both the time-dependent response and the growing shock that has previously limited ramp-wave-loading experiments. In addition, the initial steady shock pre-compresses the Fe and allows different thermodynamic compression paths to be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]