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The article focuses on a study which examined the implications of symmetry and asymmetry in interpersonal relations for the concept of projection. A distinction between symmetrical and asymmetrical cases of projection has been fundamental since it was introduced by Murray and remains so in the recent review by Holmes. It is usually implied that the two types of cases require entirely different accounts in terms of different psychological processes. The implication of the present paper is quite different. Consider any cognitive process whereby once perceives the characteristics of oneself and the other person according to the likely relationship between them. It follows from the earlier argument that such a process will lead to symmetrical cognitions for certain characteristics and asymmetrical cognitions for others. The application to cases of asymmetrical projection is most direct. Murray used complementary projection to refer to an asymmetrical situation where children who were afraid attributed maliciousness to photographs. He suggested a process, similar to that just proposed, involving the attribution of characteristics to others that explain or justify one's own. This type on interpretation has traditionally bee applied only to asymmetrical cases. Murray used supplementary projection for the symmetrical cases dealt with by classical psychoanalytic mechanism of defense. It was in order to clarify such cases that the study included adjectives to represent both relatively strong and milder versions of the Freudian motives of sex and aggression all of which gave clearly evidence for symmetry.

The term "dependence" is customarily used as a personality construct. In this usage it denotes the degree to which one person requires others to satisfy his needs, its obverse is independence, a state in which the person is able to generate his own gratifications. Interpersonal dependence, then, is flexible in a way in which dependence as a personality attribute is not. The research reported in this paper is based on the John W. Thibaut and H.H. Kelley system, which speciefies certain consequences of high interpersonal dependence. Before applying the dependence formulation to the B-S interaction in laboratory experiments, it will be necessary to summarize the position of Thibaut and Kelley. They view a person as having a repertoire of behavior sequences which comprises all the responses he is capable of enacting. When two people interact they select behavior sequences from their repertoires. Thibaut and Kelley define interpersonal power with the same concepts used to define dependence. A person's degree of power in a relationship is measured by the range of outcomes through which he actually does or potentially could move his partner. All interpersonal relationships involve some degree of dependence and power. This paper describes a situation in which high dependence is created by causing an individual to endure some very poor outcomes in the relationship while he knows that some very good ones are also attainable.

Facial expressions are an available source of information in most interpersonal situations and they are important in the communication of emotional meaning. The study presented in this paper investigates facial expressions as particular cases of stance and attempts to test the basic assumption that people can learn to duplicate facial expressions. Whether people can learn to duplicate facial expressions may at first seem purely academic and also perhaps obviously true. Yet neither of these conclusions seems to be the case. Facial expression duplication could be an important addition to the framing of clinicians to use these nonverbal cues better in their work with people Training in the laboratory with their own expressions and with those of others could transfer to the clinical situation, for example, in the following way suggested by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. In an attempt to get an experimental baseline of research on this presupposition, pilot work was undertaken to demonstrate that a person can assume a particular stance, in this case his own and others' facial expressions. Since an experimental design could not be found which suited the collection of data for this study, the author devised one specifically for the purpose. Thus, in addition to testing some hypotheses, the author was also creating and trying out a new design for experimental work on facial expressions.

Attribution of responsibility is becoming the subject of increasing research activity. Reasons for such activity appear fairly obvious. It is highly probable that the degree to which one person holds another as responsible for the latter's acts is a prime determinant of much interpersonal behavior. For example, responses to others that are punishing versus rehabilitative, generous versus niggardly, kindly versus hostile, or accepting versus rejecting may all be mediated to a substantial extent by the degree to which one attributes responsibility to another person for the outcome of his acts. The focus of the present paper is on several potential determinants of responsibility attribution and their interactions. In professor E. Walster's study, the stimulus events were described as chance-determined. That is, a person gained, broke even, or lost money on an investment purely as a function of environmental events over which he had no control. In this study, Walster was not able to show a relation between responsibility attribution and outcome seventy.

In this article, research style and personality characteristics of men and women mathematicians has been analyzed to provide empirical findings about the separate ways in which creative members of each sex differ from comparison sources. Creative work is reliably appraised and highly valued by mathematicians, so that men who are creative are clearly identified and have higher status than other men in the field. The first hypothesis is that creative men will differ from all other mathematicians, male and female, in such traits as self-assurance and professional participativeness. A research paper by sociologist Erich Neumann suggests a second hyppothesis. He describes two types of consciousness which he called patriarchal and matriarchal. Patriarchal consciousness is assertive, objective, analytical, purposive. It was found in the study that creative men were far more confident, forceful, and effective, both as researchers and also as leaders and evaluators, than all other subjects. Creative men and women differed in opposite directions from comparison men and women on measures of professional participativeness, sociability, and self acceptance.

This article investigates the influence of response styles upon the process of attitude change, the relationships of response sets to one another as well as to attitude content are also explored. The research by psychologists D.N. Jackson and S.J. Messick indicate that response sets on paper and pencil tests have meaningful clinical correlates. It might be expected that the combination of response sets and content might be relevant in understanding attitude change. Three college samples drawn from different sections of the country were tested on the F scale and a measure of prejudice toward African Americans before and after a film about desegregation. The response styles recorded in the study also correlate with behavior on a variety of psychometric measures. Extremity, correlates significantly with a tendency to make extreme statements in describing the self. The implication of the findings is that any stylistic measure based on an unwarranted assumption of reversed scales will not predict. On the broad regional level, some predictability, closely following the results in the literature, is possible, but at the level of personality, the predictability is questionable.

The article presents studies which attempt to extend the previous work on social perception, in two main respects. They are primarily concerned with the interpersonal relationship which exists between the perceiver and the perceivee, and secondly, they deal with the phenomena of interpersonal perception. Data about living persons have been utilized as the basic stimuli of perception. The research discussed in this article is based on the assumption that the interpersonal relationship can be considered as a unit for purposes of research. The relationship can be studied by means of interpersonal perception methods if some methodological assumptions are made. The assumption which has perhaps been most widely accepted holds that a person will react to his environment in terms of how he perceives it. However, by "environment" it is usually meant people, especially those on whom the individual depends for gratification of his physical and emotional needs. The particular dimension with which the paper deals with is a by- product of prediction. The degree of similarity or difference which one person assumes to exist between himself and another is a matter of interest. It is hypothesized that this tendency to see another person as similar to oneself will have important consequences to the interpersonal relationship.

Any social perception may be considered to have four components (a) the perceiver, (b) the individual or group perceived, (c) the evidence or stimuli available to the perceiver ("input"), and (d) the judgment reported by the perceiver ("outtake"). Each of these components, in turn, can be described along various dimensions. The entire domain of possible research on social perception in terms of these components can be mapped. A few examples are given from work by others already in the literature. Holding everything else constant, it can be studied how social perceptions differ according to characteristics of the perceiver. This paper analyzes some of the problems inherent in the proposition that accuracy of social perception correlates positively with effectiveness in interpersonal relationships. Four components of social perception were identified and illustrated: perceiver, perceivee, input, and outtake. Contradictory results of previous research on accuracy in relation to effectiveness were cited to illustrate the problem of developing a theory of relevant outtake, or kinds of perceptions to be elicited. The possibility of developing standard cases for the measurement of social perception was described and illustrated by current research. Finally, results were cited to suggest that there may be two types of accuracy of social perception, each internally consistent, yet negatively related to each other and not accounted for by an adherence-to-stereotype response set. The two types can on logical grounds be denoted "accuracy in perceiving manifest stimulus value" and "accuracy in taking the role of the other."

This article is based on a symposium on social perception and examines certain factors influencing one individual's appraisal of another. In so doing the paper primarily concerns with the kinds of information on which such an appraisal is based. Specifically, the article discusses perceptions or conceptualizations based on the information contained in projective-test protocols. In the ordinary course of interpersonal affairs one individual perceives another intermittently in the performance of varied sequences of social acts. The types of acts he observes are limited by such factors as frequency of contact, the relationship which maintains between the observer and the observed, constants and variables operating on the observed individual during the periods of observation, etc. Hence, a man's employer may possess inadequate or inappropriate information for describing his semiprivate behavior in the family situation while yet being able to render a valid characterization of the man's interpersonal relations at his work. Conversely, a wife might conceivably render a fairly adequate characterization, i.e., one that would provide a basis for valid prediction of certain aspects of his semiprivate life and yet be quite inaccurate in her prediction of his behavior in situations with which she was unfamiliar.

Increase use of the Draw-A-Person Test as a clinical diagnostic device has demonstrated the need for experimental analysis of certain DAP Test indices often employed in clinical interpretations. The present paper is concerned with a study, in normal subjects, of the relationship of the factors of sex and age of the subject to the height of the figure drawn a variable frequently selected for interpretation when the DAP Test is used as a projective technique. The reliability of this height dimension was also studied. Relationships investigated in the present research were those which could be objectively established for a large group of subjects rather than those involving clinical interpretations for any specific persons or group of persons. Though the stimulating situation is the same for both sexes, their projective responses as represented in the DAP show distinct differences on these two variables. Moreover, as shown on the height variable, these projective responses tend to be constant over a period of time.

The article describes a standardized test situation giving evidence of the extent of differences among people in ease of perception of embedded figures A subsequent research paper reports a study investigating the relations between performance in this test and performance in a variety of other perceptual situations. This "embedded-figures test" has a fairly high reliability as shown by odd-even correlations of 87 for men and 74 for women. Results obtained with this test for a group of 51 men and 51 women are presented. A very striking range of difference among subjects has been found in the ease of discovering the simple figure within the complex one. Furthermore, women, on the average, require considerably more time to detect the simple figure than do men. Qualitative results are presented which shed light on the specific perceptual difficulties encountered by subjects in tins test. Finally, some relations between results of the present test and results obtained with concept-formation tests and the Kohs Test are considered.

The present study investigates the relationship between the expression of tempo and expansiveness in handwriting and two temperamental traits, extraversion and neuroticism, that have been claimed by sociologist H.J. Eysenck to be basic dimensions in personality. These traits have been operationally defined for this study as the scores on the E and N scales of Eysenck's MPI. The extraversion items refer to such topics as liveliness, social initiative, gregariousness, and a preference for action over thought. In other words, persons who score high on the E scale could be expected to invest more energy into external activities than those who score low. The traditional methods used for interpreting personality from handwriting have been complex signs, unanalyzed intuitions, and inferences by analogy. Graphologists have objected to attempts to relate simple objective signs in the handwriting to single personality traits on the grounds that such attempts violate the complexities of the relationship. Among the characteristics, which graphologists traditionally look for in handwriting are signs of the degree to which the writer constricts or releases the investment of energy in his activities.

In order to find a basis for certain formerly described phenomenal changes upon picture reversal, especially those related to the experience of picture space, of object qualities and of relationships between objects and the self an analysis of visual experience of real objects in space was made and compared it with that of surface patterns. Through variation of objects and of looking behavior we have arrived at new phenomenological distinctions. The main distinctions are those of exterior and interior experience and their basic qualities as determined by the spatial configuration of object surfaces and as influenced by our looking behavior. Relationships between the objects and the self (which may appear as such or acadherent or inherent, relative object qualities or as related to the self) as well as the phenomenal dominance of exterior or interior experience depend primarily upon the relative location in depth of fixation plane and object. Such dependencies have implications not only for perception but also for the fields of personality and psychopathology.

In most investigations of social perception the perceiver is given a predetermined set of dimensions on which his evaluations must be made. By specifying the dimensions along which a stimulus person is to be assessed, an important source of variability in the impression information process is ignored i.e., which dimensions the perceiver typically chooses when evaluating others. Several researchers have resourcefully argued that to understand both social interaction and the personality of the perceive; it is important to know which evaluative dimensions are characteristically employed in judging others. One of the central determinants of people's social behavior is assumed to be their desire to assess their own abilities, beliefs and values. Concepts such as social comparison and comparative appraisal emphasize the importance of the evaluation of others as a means by which one maintains or modifies opinions about himself.

The article presents an analysis of interpersonal relations, ease of recognition of social structural relations and the types of errors made in such recognition. A recognition task was employed as a method which would be sensitive to cognitive biases which operate in the organization and storage in memory of social structures. Subjects were shown interpersonal relationships from several social structures during study trials. These were followed by test trials in which subjects were asked to recognize which relationships they had actually seen in the previous study trials. Analysis of errors made in the recognition task indicated which organizational biases were operating. Results revealed strong positivity and reciprocity biases, but little evidence for a general balance effect. In light of these results and other research in the area, it was suggested that several conditions must be met before balance emerges as a principle of cognitive structure, use of a methodology appropriate, to the study of cognitive organization, awareness by the subject that he is dealing with a structured social situation, the subject not be put under severe cognitive overload.

The article examines the effects of the balance and ordering schemas upon the learning of simple social structures. The role of cognitive schemas in the learning of social structures was investigated using the paired-associates paradigm within a 2 x 2 x 4 x 4 design factorializing subjects' cognitive complexity, the type of relationship learned, the social structure in which the relationships appeared and four learning trials. Fewest errors were made in those conditions where the structure matched the subject's schema of the structure. "Like" relations produced fewer errors under the balance properties of symmetry and transitivity, while dominance relations were learned more easily under the ordering properties of asymmetry and transitivity. The design permitted comparisons which showed the ordering schema to be of greater strength than the balance schema. More interestingly, subjects differing in cognitive complexity were found to differ in their reliance on social schemas. Noncomplex subjects made fewer errors when the balance schema matched the structure, while complex subjects demonstrated greater ability to abandon both the balance and ordering schemas when they interfered with learning the structure.

The article investigates husband-wife similarity, and the effect of general personality characteristics on perception and judgments of sexual stimuli. In view of the importance of sexual behavior in marriage, agreement about sexuality should be a primary source of positive reciprocal reinforcement between husband and wife. It was hypothesized that husbands and wives exhibit greater than chance similarity in responding to erotica and that authoritarianism is an important mediator of these responses. With a sample of 42 married couples, spouses were found to be similar in their reported sexual arousal, in their judgments of pornography, and in their attitudes about censorship following exposure to erotic stimuli depicting a variety of sexual themes. In addition, highly authoritarian couples were more sexually aroused by the stimuli, reported greater negative emotional arousal, judged more themes as pornographic, and advocated greater restrictiveness of erotic stimuli than equalitarian couples. Similarity across a number of dimensions of sexuality was discussed within the context of marital satisfaction.

The study presented in the article was designed to investigate the influence of several variables upon helping behavior. Of primary concern was the relationship between the potential benefactor's perceptions of himself as competent and the degree to which he would voluntarily incur direct costs to himself in order to benefit another individual. It seems quite possible that when helping is associated with the possibility of aversive consequences and no one moves to help the hapless victim, cowardice may be far more common than callousness and anxiety more common than apathy. However, when bystanders perceive themselves as possessing the competence necessary for effective action, the probability of help giving may be greatly increased. Explicit in the current definitions of altruism is the salience of costs and particularly the amount of cost to the potential aider relative to his expected rewards. In four recent experiments in which costs to the aider were introduced as an independent variable, evidence was provided that there exists a negative association between costs and aiding.

The article focuses on the measure of emotional empathy and its related validity in settings where such a personality attribute is relevant. An empathic person can imaginatively take the role of another and can understand and accurately predict that person's thoughts, feelings, and actions. Measures of empathic emotional response have typically relied on self-report and physiological indicators. The low validity of the self-ratings is due to their confounding with response styles and the inadequacy of the physiological measures is in part due to their failure to differentiate various facets of emotional experience. In the study, basic hypotheses were that a person who has a high level of emotional empathy is less likely to engage in aggressive behavior, particularly when the pain cues from the victim are immediate, and that he is more likely to engage in helping behavior when he notices distress in another. In other words, the common element in these situations is the heightened responsiveness to another's emotional experience.

The article presents information on stylistic consistency versus situational specificity in size of children's drawings. Whether at least some behavior shows cross-situational consistency in contrast to the claim that behavior can be best understood as situationally specific is a controversy of considerable proportions in personality and social psychology. In the controversy's most recent phase, those who seem more friendly as well as those who seem more hostile to the situational specificity thesis as advanced. The trouble with construct validation as a research strategy is that it encourages the investigator to use as the criterion for what to study not whether a particular type of behavior is intrinsically meaningful is of interest in its own right but rather whether it can be taken on theoretical grounds as a sign or test response for indexing some presumed underlying trait or disposition.

The article presents information on the effect of performance evaluation on interpersonal distance. It is possible that the failure to find significant relationships between personality dimensions and interpersonal distance arises from a lack of congruence between the measured personality dimension and the situation in which distance is being measured. That is, personality variables should be related to distance only when those variables are related to the interpersonal interaction dimension being manipulated. The strategy in the present study was, therefore, to include personality measures frequently related to the situation under investigation.

The article presents information on the performance styles as a determinant of effectiveness in an information-seeking task. The question of whether or not social behavior is internally or externally determined has long been of interest to social psychologists Not only does social behavior vary from person to person, but there are differences in the extent to which a person's behavior varies over time. On one extreme are persons who maintain consistency over a wide variety of social situations; at the other extreme are persons whose behavior changes remarkably from situation to situation. From the results of this study it is apparent that a Machiavellian type role-player does not have a natural advantage over someone unwilling or unable to resort to underhanded methods of information-extortion.

When an individual feels responsible for having caused the suffering of others, he may experience a need to justify his behavior. The harm-doer appears to justify his behavior by devaluing his victim, thus convincing himself that the victim merited his fate. With derogation as a measure of justification, it was hypothesized that a harm-doer will derogate his victim more when the victim is powerless to retaliate than when retaliation from the victim is expected. The obtained significant interaction between the subject's responsibility for harming the victim and his anticipation of being punished appears to support the hypothesis. However, both an opposite and larger effect was obtained for observers, control subjects expecting retaliation by the victim derogated him more than those who did not expect retaliation It may be, then, that the difference between the harm doer retaliation expected and the harm-doer no retaliation expected conditions was not significant. The present study attempts to show that from the harm-doer's point of view, expected retaliation from the victim results in an equitable relationship and that under this condition the harm-doer does not experience the need to justify his harmful act.

A major purpose of this study was to show the degree of relationship between humanitarian attitudes and beliefs about mental patients, on one hand, and volunteering for a companionship program for mental hospital patients. Yet the social psychology literature indicates that predictive validity of attitude measures is perhaps the most poorly verified area of attitude research. It was thought that general altruistic attitude and specific beliefs about mental patients, in linear combination, would have a reasonably close link to subjects' intentions to participate in companionship. In effect, beliefs about patients would function like a cognate screen, with respect to humanitarian attitude. Persons who hold negative beliefs, e.g., that patients are dirty, dangerous and unpredictable, unlike normal people, etc, will tend to shy away from a program intended to bring them into contact with such individuals, despite their altruism.

If the need to achieve competence in one's dealings with the environment is truly a drive state in human beings, it should show evidence of satiation once competence has been attained, in the same way that rats appear to undergo satiation of perceptual curiosity. Thus, perceived competence on a task should lead to a lessening of interest in that task and a desire to go on to a new task. Motivation to avoid unsuccessful interaction with the environment should be most operative when the person perceives that complete incompetence can be avoided if activity on the task ceases immediately, in contrast to the situation where incompetence has already occurred and cannot be avoided by leaving the field. Success subjects should attribute more internal causality to themselves than failure subjects, similarly, ascending subjects should be higher in internal causality than descending subjects, on the second measure.

The article presents information on the reciprocal need gratification in inter-sexual attraction. It is a frequently stated idea or theory, whose source is vaguely Freudian, that the degree of intimacy developed between two persons depends largely on the extent to which they satisfy each other's needs. Opinions differ, however, when it comes to identifying the needs that operate in dyadic relations and the behaviors that actually satisfy such needs scholars W.C. Schutz and R.F. Winch have both developed theories and investigated interpersonal needs as they relate to interpersonal attraction, but their conceptions are dissimilar and their methods do not fully agree. Winch, who is a student of marriage and family relationships, has derived his theoretical position from an essentially Freudian base, has employed case history, interview, and projective tests as measures of needs, and has used conventional techniques to relate his findings to his theory. Schutz's approach on the other hand is from the vantage of his experience in working with small groups, his tendency in theorizing is more eclectically based and his analytic techniques in relating his data to his theory uniquely his own.

The article presents information on determinants of helping behavior. In recent years there has been an increasing amount of empirical research pertaining to pro-social behavior. Co-ordinate with this research has been the development of theoretical models sufficiently broad in scope to encompass pro-social or helping behavior. Some of these theoretical models include attribution theory, the normative models of reciprocity, social responsibility, indebtedness and the exchange models. The exchange approach, while based on an economic or utilitarian conception of man, also recognizes the role of normative influences in the form of distributive justice or inequity. Thus, when an individual in an exchange with another feels that he has a better ratio of profits to investments than the other person, he may attempt to give the other help and thereby establish equality of proportions between the two of them. The amount of injustice and consequently the magnitude of help given the other, will be greatest when the person receives high rewards and incurs low costs, while the other person receives low rewards and incurs high costs. When injustice is thus conceptualized in terms of rewards and costs, it is theoretically possible to have a quantitatively equal amount of injustice produced in quantitatively different ways.

The article issues related to dissonance and attitude change. Few theoretical issues in social psychology have attracted as much interest in recent years as have those dealing with models of cognitive consistency. A number of studies have found greater attitude change with lesser rewards, thus providing empirical support for dissonance theory of most relevance to the present research is the investigation, in which undergraduates were induced by differing amounts of monetary reward to compose essays which advocated a position directly opposite to that held by most, if not all, of the subject population. Through their responses to a short questionnaire, administered immediately after the completion of this task, subjects indicated their attitude regarding the issue. This conceptualization of dissonance-induced attitude change is supported by the results of the present study, where such an effect is seen only under immediate measurement, after which an alternative mechanism becomes more salient. Thus it seems that attitude change in response to dissonance arousal would tend to be shortened, unless the manner of dissonance inducement or the particular behaviors and attitudes involved render the activation of alternative modes of resolution impossible, under such conditions, attitude change might persist indefinitely.

Recent reviews on the influence of space on social interactions have provided interesting insights into the nature of spatial determinants. However, a great deal of variability in spatial arrangements remains after the cultural component has been subtracted. Marked differences in the use of space have been noted between normals and schizophrenics. R. Sommer (1959) found that in discussion sessions schizophrenics remained more distant from partners than did normals. An alternate, indirect approach to investigating the relationship between personality characteristics and interpersonal distance is to manipulate interpersonal distance and examine its effects on impressions of personality. Instead of attempting to relate personality characteristics to observed spatial behavior, the task is to manipulate spatial behavior and examine perceived differences in personality characteristics. This article aims to investigate this issue. It was hypothesized that an individual will be perceived less socially active as the physical distance between him and a subject rating him increases.

The article investigates the relationships between personality variables and preferences among methods of resolving cognitive inconsistencies. Four groups of subjects, defined in terms of primary response mode to experimentally induced inconsistency, were compared on their personality test scores. Conformers, rejectors-devaluators, underrecallers, and a group who did not score high on any response variable were compared in a discriminant analysis of scores on 11 personality attributes. It was found that these groups could be differentiated in terms of two dimensions which accounted for over 88% of the variance among the groups on the personality measures. Scores on the repression-sensitization scale and octants of the interpersonal checklist representing submissive and cooperative behavior were most important in differentiating among the groups. The informational yield from the multivariate analysis greatly exceeded that from univariate comparisons of the groups on each personality attribute. It was concluded that the comparison of response-preference groups on personality scores by means of discriminant analysis may be useful as an approach to studying personality differences in methods of inconsistency reduction.

Although many studies have been done in the framework of Rogerian theory, few have included the constructs of openness to experience and organismic valuing. Yet these occupy a central place in the structure of researcher C.R. Rogers theories of therapy, personality, and psychological adjustment, and as such deserve extensive study. The purpose of the present study was to test the Rogerian proposition that openness to experience and organismic valuing are positively related in a normal population. Because of the breadth of the definitions of these constructs, a strategy of conceptual-operational coordination advocated by researcher D.W. Fiske was followed. Each of the two large constructs was analyzed into several constituent, but smaller, subconstructs, which would presumably be more congruent with measurement operations. Openness to experience, according to Rogers refers to the complete availability of all stimulation to awareness, and to a perceptual-symbolic process whose function is to keep experience and symbolization congruent.

The article discusses the human tendency of preference for persons similar to oneself. The major determinant of the preference for similar others is that they are less threatening than the dissimilar others. This proposal assumes that avoidance motivation is a relatively widespread and dominant source of interpersonal choices in natural situations. There is considerable evidence that relative preference for dissimilar others increases when characteristics of the situation, or other characteristics of the others themselves, reduce the likelihood of threat to the chooser. Thus it has been found that persons are attracted to dissimilar others if these others prefer relatively intimate relationships, are accepting of the chooser, and if they minimize security losses and maximize security gains of the chooser. In competitive or task-oriented settings, where interpersonal feelings presumably are not a primary consideration, preference for similars is not found. Assuming that motives for security and safety are secondary only to basic physiological needs, it is likely that self-protection is a salient consideration in initial social contacts. If dissimilarity between persons is threatening, then the relative preference for similar others should be higher among insecure persons.

The article discusses structural bias and generalization in the learning of social structures. Balance is a bias which involves the interaction of the liking relations and the agreement between them about some object. Because balance depends on the overall structuring of interpersonal and attitudinal relations, it may be referred to as a structural bias. Agreement is a simpler bias because it involves only the similarity of interpersonal or attitudinal relations. But people's reactions to triadic social situations may be affected by yet simpler cognitive biases. Unlike the structural biases, the generalization biases refer to one-way influences from one relation to another. They have usually been ignored in tests of the structural biases. It may also be pointed out that the learning of hypothetical social structures reveals itself as a sensitive method for studying cognitions about social reality. A study employed a paired-associates learning procedure to compare the relative effects of structural biases such as balance to simpler cognitive biases.

The two principal theoretical formulations, which have been advanced, to account for interpersonal attraction each place primary emphasis on variables operating during the interaction. Cognitive consistency theorists stress the importance of the balance or symmetry of the positive and negative attitudes and orientations of any two individuals with respect to each other and to the objects about which they communicate. The effects of sex membership on attraction are slightly less clear. For one, the correlational sociometric studies of attraction, which have dealt with this variable, have tended to indicate that within-sex attraction exceeds cross-sex attraction. Nevertheless, in a college-age population, expectancies concerning the reinforcement value of a stranger of the opposite sex should be greater than expectancies about a stranger of the same sex. Further, the hypothesized effects of physical attractiveness should be greater with opposite-sex than with same sex strangers. It is therefore hypothesized that attraction is greater toward an opposite-sex stranger than toward one of the same sex and the effects of physical attractiveness and sex are interactive.

The article presents information on the biasing effect of agreement in balanced and imbalanced triads. The accumulated evidence provided by numerous experiments overwhelmingly indicates that balance, as defined by scholar F. Heider and by scholars D. Cartwright and F. Harary, meets some difficulties whenever a negative feeling exists between p and o These difficulties are shown in several experiments in which the subjects are part of hypothetical or real interpersonal structures, and the degree of tension experienced by them in such structures is assessed by their reported unpleasantness, or uneasiness, or another indicator of how tense they felt, when involved in the structures presented to them. According to Heider such tension should be low when the structures are balanced, and high when they are unbalanced. One notes, however, in such experiments, that high tension is obtained for balanced triads involving a negative p/o relationship, and relative low tension is manifested for unbalanced triads involving a negative p/o relationship. The author believes that at least in part these findings can be accounted for by the conflict that exists between balance and agreement forces in triads with a negative p/0 bond.

The article focuses on structural balance and the induction of relations. Three different methods have been used in studies, which explore sociologist F. Heider's principle of balance. One method follows from the assumption that the state of imbalance will produce tension, and it involves, therefore, ratings or rankings of tension or unpleasantness evoked by hypothetical configurations. The second method derives from the principle of induction of relations and equifinality, which holds that if, among a number of entities, only some of all possible relations exist, there will be a tendency to form new relations so as to maintain or to produce balance This method requires the subject to predict missing relations in hypothetical structures. The third method regards balance as one of many cognitive biases which individuals hold about social relations, and it utilizes the paired-associates learning technique to detect these biases. This last method is consistent with Heider's proposition that if no balanced state exists, then forces towards this state will arise. Either the dynamic characters will change, or the unit relations will be changed through action or through cognitive reorganization.

The article focuses on the effect of commitment to future interaction on reactions to norm violations. Social norms are important, in part, because they prevent harmful or anarchic social intercourse, enable persons to agree on a common definition of the social situation and, lower the cost of social exchange. It follows, then, that those who violate social norms will be negatively evaluated. But one's covert evaluation and overt treatment of an inappropriate other depend on a number of situational variables, including the expectation of future interaction with the other. Three experiments explored some covert and overt reactions to the inappropriate behavior of another as a function of the anticipation of future interaction with the other. The first experiment indicated that with future interaction anticipated, subjects liked the person more who behaved appropriately and liked the person less who behaved inappropriately than when no future interaction was anticipated. The other two experiments indicated that when the other behaved inappropriately toward a third person, the commitment to future interaction increased the frequency of attempts to change the other's behavior, but only when the offended person was not present.

The article focuses on the personality impression change as a function of the favorableness of first impressions. The importance of one variable that seems to have been neglected in previous studies, the quality of the initial impression, is suggested by an incidental finding reported by sociologists J.L. Freedman and J.D. Steinbruner. This finding suggests that an unfavorable first impression is more difficult to change than a favorable one. opinion. Although the initial favorable and unfavorable information was shown to be equally favorable or unfavorable, there apparently was no attempt to equate the relative favorability of the final information. The major purpose of previous studies was to provide a more general test of the hypothesis that a negative initial impression of another person is more difficult to change than a positive one. Whether a favorable first impression is easier to change than an unfavorable one, and secondarily, whether the favorability variable interacts with the mode of responding variable has been analyzed here.

The article focuses on the significance of "authoritarianism" in important social orientations and behavior. There is a question that has remained unsettled about the status of "authoritarianism" as a personological syndrome. This has been judged by including measures of authoritarianism in a battery of procedures administered to a group of Peace Corps. The qualities of flexibility, interpersonal sensitivity, humanistic orientation, and the like, commonly ascribed to persons who are low in authoritarianism, would seem to be ingredients of an effective performance in the Peace Corps, while alleged authoritarian traits such as rigidity, ethnocentrism, and conventionality should interfere with effective performance. The direct relationship between authoritarianism and performance in the Peace Corps shows a certain simplicity. It might be argued that an "ego" variable like authoritarianism, concerned with a person's ways of relating both to his impulse life and to the social world, strictures than, say, a motivational variable such as need for aggression.

This article is concerned with an evaluation of two sources of instigation to aggression and their interaction during a competitive, aggressive confrontation. It is apparent that while the relationship between frustration and overt aggression is often of paramount interest, it cannot be derived from the frustration-aggression hypothesis alone, but requires a consideration of other variables which influence the expression of aggression, such as guilt and fear of retaliation. Turning to the variable of perceived aggressive intent of the opponent, it is apparent from everyday observation that the relationship between frustration and aggression can be markedly altered by the intent that is attributed to the person who is the source of the frustration. The person who experienced the frustration may even be observed to express sympathy to the person who injured him, reassuring him that it was not his fault. Investigations of arbitrary and nonarbitrary frustration indicate that when frustration can be attributed to a reasonable, or otherwise acceptable cause, it is apt to elicit far less aggression than when it is arbitrary in the sense of appearing to be a result of the whim of the aggressor.

This article presents an investigation of the implications of a structural balance model of communication effects. The model suggested in this study uses the mathematical theory of linear graphs to represent the basic communication situation in which a source is presenting a communication about an issue to a receiver. This model has now been investigated in a number of studies where the interest has mainly focused upon whether sources, given information about certain relations in the model would predict the sign of other relations in accordance with the principle of balance. The article also explores other ways in which the receiver might react to the source apart from those implied by the structural balance model. To measure evaluation of source, five seven-step bipolar adjective scales were employed with the descriptive labels including, attractive-repulsive, good-bad, pleasant-unpleasant, awful-nice and friendly-unfriendly. To measure potency of source, four seven-step bipolar adjective scales were employed with the descriptive labels including tough-tender, influential-ineffectual, weak-strong and permissive-authoritarian. To measure activity of source, two seven-step bipolar adjective scales were employed with the descriptive labels including passive-active, slow-fast.

For years, researchers have been concerned with a person's ability to convey emotional meaning through vocal but non-verbal techniques. The basic procedure has been to instruct a speaker to express a particular emotional meaning, such as affection, by reciting letters of the alphabet, numbers, or some other mode of communication that eliminates potential verbal cues. The task for the S has been to identify the emotional meaning expressed by the speaker. The perception of communications of emotional meaning can be seen as a particular kind of social perception. The many investigations of the relation between social perception and interpersonal behavior have not, however, produced consistent findings. In view of the contradictory findings, attempts have been made to clarify the conditions under which accurate social perception occurs and the nature of the interpersonal relationships that exist. These attempts have been in the direction of affirming that the perceptual categories being studied must be relevant not only to the perceiver but also to his particular social situation.

The analysis of creativity suggests a concentration of assessment attempts in the area of associational processes, in contrast to the quite heterogeneous types of tasks that have received the creativity label in studies of the kind touched upon earlier. This theoretical analysis also suggests that the assessment context must be quite different from the kind utilized in the studies that the authors have reviewed, there should be freedom from time pressure and there should be a playful, game-like context rather than one implying that the person is under test. This presentation has traced in outline form the history of our research on two modes of thinking in young children, modes which constitute quite different, but yet quite pervasive, dimensions of individual differences. Work progressed from the definition and operationalization of the cognitive types in question to an investigation of their correlates in such areas as observable social and achievement-relevant behaviors, ways of forming concepts, physiognomic sensitivities, and self-described levels of general anxiety and test anxiety. From the findings obtained, it seems fair to conclude that the present definition of creativity denotes a mode of cognitive functioning that matters a great deal in the life of the child.

Research into relationships between personality factors and creativity will gain precision by distinguishing and describing different types of personality common among persons with creative potential. This article will describe a personality syndrome associated with the childhood pattern of imaginative and artistic interests. Then, several hypotheses will be tested about how the more creative women with such interests differ from the others. Since imaginative and artistic interests are characteristically feminine, a sample of women with such interests--some of them creative and others not--would seem to lend itself to a test of the role of masculine traits in creativity in women. Feminine nature is commonly regarded as receptive, field-dependent, nurturant, self-effacing, and concerned with feelings, personal relationships, and "wholeness." Writers have maintained that women who develop masculine traits do so only by repressing their feminine natures, with the consequent loss of creative spontaneity.

The article focuses on the aspect of the process in person perception, called as "cojudgment." The process, whereby the possession of a desirable attribute is assumed to imply the possession of other desirable attributes, and the possession of an undesirable attribute is assumed to imply the possession of other undesirable attributes. Cojudgment may be defined as the judgment that similarly evaluated attributes tend to be associated within a stimulus person. This process is related to "the halo effect" and to "the logical error." The interesting technique for investigating "tolerance of trait inconsistency" is rather too dependent upon an externally derived average evaluation score which need not be closely related to an evaluation made by an individual perceiver. The cojudgment behavior of subject around the key trait intelligence has been studied, and it was shown that although F score was not related to evaluation or implication scores alone, it was related to concordance score and to a tendency to make extreme responses.

It was felt that an investigation of whether comparable probability matching behavior occurs in the interpersonal realm would have direct relevance to the processes involved in social learning and interpersonal perception. This article reports three experiments which attempt to assess the degree to which the "probability matching hypothesis" applies to the prediction of interpersonal events. The large body of literature purporting to demonstrate that Subjects learn to adjust their predictions of events to match the actual probability of occurrence of the alternative events, has been restricted to such stimuli as the flashing of one or another light, or similar innocuous events. A feature common to the three studies reported herein is the use of lengthy series of tape recorded voices, each stating a common name in a neutral tone of voice. The voices were presented at a constant rate and the Subject's task was to predict whether the person portrayed on the recording was "friendly" or "non-friendly." Following the Subject's response, the events indicated whether the person was actually friendly or not, according to a prearranged schedule. Thus, these studies utilize the same non-contingent, two-alternative design as earlier experiments, but with the essential modification that interpersonal stimuli were employed, and the prediction to be made was social in nature.

The article focuses on optimum conformity as an ingratiation tactic. The present investigation concerns the manner in which a person resolves a particular dilemma in making himself attractive to another. It is one of a series of studies investigating the use of restricted communication opportunities for ingratiating self-presentations. If a person is concerned with presenting an attractive "face" to another and has been apprized of the other's opinions, a convenient and common way to accomplish this is to express opinions which are highly similar to those of the other, to agree with him or at least to minimize the degree of disagreement two students like themselves. Following instructions given on the recording, one of these students always expressed his opinions after hearing the opinions of the other. It was so arranged that the degree of agreement was always very close in one treatment and moderately close or variable in another treatment a cross-cutting variation presented the opinion interchange in two different contexts approximately half the Ss heard the interchange described on the recording as a preliminary to a lucrative and attractive experiment-if the students ended up attracted to each other, the remaining Ss heard the interchange presented as a first impression session in which candor and accurate self-revelation were crucial. The major dependent variable was the rated impression of the student forced to go second in the recorded interchange. As predicted, Ss disliked and deprecated this student when the context raised the importance of attraction and he responded with slavish opinion agreement.

In a series of recent investigations, both attitude similarity and need for affiliation have been found to influence interpersonal attraction. The present article represents an extension of this work. It has been proposed that the most general explanatory concept in attraction theory is that of reciprocal reward and punishment. The occurrence of any type of interpersonal reward engenders positive affect which is directed toward the rewarding person, punishment in an interpersonal situation engenders negative affect. The relative number of rewards and punishments associated with a given individual is at least one important determinant of attraction toward him. Attraction based on response to attitude similarity-dissimilarity is interpreted as a special case of reward and punishment. The motive involved is the learned drive to be logical and to interpret correctly one's stimulus world. The satisfaction of this motive depends primarily on consensual validation, especially with respect to events which constitute social reality in that the physical consequences of one's assumptions are difficult or impossible to test.

This article focuses on the effects of set and discrepancy on impression change. Common sense stresses the importance of forming accurate first impressions. Thus, common sense assumes that initial information is given heavier weight or that initial impressions are resistant to change. Impressions can be measured in terms of their differentiation, the occurrence of interrelationships among their parts, and variations in centrality among their elements. Perhaps the most important condition for creating dissonance or pressure to change is the receipt of discrepant information. The more discrepant the information the greater the pressure to change. If an impression consists of relatively discrete elements, the pressure will be confined to those elements inconsistent with the new data. However, when the discrepancy exists with elements in a highly organized impression, pressure for change occurs not only for the elements directly inconsistent with the information, but for all elements dependent upon or related to them. One might assume, therefore, more dissonance or tension in the organized impression since the disagreement ramifies to many elements.

Secondary reinforcers in the form of approval and affection are believed to play an important, if not indispensable, role in the socialization. The purpose of the experiment reported here was to investigate the influence of dependency inhibition on the effectiveness of social reinforcement. The primary hypothesis, derived from a general behavior theory account of the development of dependency, implied that children who strongly inhibit dependent behavior would be considerably less responsive to adult praise and approval than would children who do not inhibit dependency. To test this prediction, groups of adolescent delinquent boys who differed with respect to dependency inhibition were studied in two experimental learning situations. The first was a verbal-conditioning interview in which confiding responses were reinforced by simple expressions of approval-assent. In the second task, the subjects were required to learn three paired-associate lists to the criterion of one errorless recitation under conditions of mild praise. A control group, which participated in both of these experiments, received no reinforcement.