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Purpose -- The purpose of this paper is to present the case for an analysis of communication at the supra-individual level as a means of rendering the understanding of learning and acting tractable. The paper introduces a method of analysis of redundancy to achieve this. Design/methodology/approach -- The paper argues for a supra-individual approach to acting, learning, and understanding against focusing on an individual or quasi-transcendental "observer". The argument is outlined in four steps: first, articulation of the dynamics of the communication system; second, consideration of the redundancies of expectations within communication; third, the computation of anticipation which enables the authors to model meaning processing; and fourth the feedback of meaning processing on information processing can be measured as redundancy. Anticipated future states can reflexively drive reconstructions in meaning-processing systems. Research limitations/implications -- The social system can be considered as a symbolic order of coordination mechanisms. Reflexive agency can access this order and partake in it. However, expectations and their structures do not "exist", but remain uncertain with the status of hypotheses. Historical embodiment in intentional action is structurally coupled to the order of expectations. The historical instantiations condition and enable the further development of the expectations as a retention mechanism. Originality/value -- The modelling and measurement of meaning processing in terms of inversion of the arrow of time and the generation of redundancy provide extensions to the mathematical theory of communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – A key cybernetics concept, information transmitted in a system, was quantified by Shannon. It quickly gained prominence, inspiring a version by Harvard psychologists Garner and Hake for "absolute identification" experiments. There, human subjects "categorize" sensory stimuli, affording "information transmitted" in perception. The Garner-Hake formulation has been in continuous use for 62 years, exerting enormous influence. But some experienced theorists and reviewers have criticized it as uninformative. They could not explain why, and were ignored. Here, the "why" is answered. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – A key Shannon data-organizing tool is the confusion matrix. Its columns and rows are, respectively, labeled by "symbol sent" (event) and "symbol received" (outcome), such that matrix entries represent how often outcomes actually corresponded to events. Garner and Hake made their own version of the matrix, which deserves scrutiny, and is minutely examined here. Findings – The Garner-Hake confusion-matrix columns represent "stimulus categories", ranges of some physical stimulus attribute (usually intensity), and its rows represent "response categories" of the subject's identification of the attribute. The matrix entries thus show how often an identification empirically corresponds to an intensity, such that "outcomes" and "events" differ in kind (unlike Shannon's). Obtaining a true "information transmitted" therefore requires stimulus categorizations to be converted to hypothetical evoking stimuli, achievable (in principle) by relating categorization to sensation to intensity. But those relations are actually unknown, perhaps unknowable. Originality/value – The author achieves an important understanding: why "absolute identification" experiments do not illuminate sensory processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explore current questions about metaphor, experience and aesthetic awareness that persist through the variations of critical approaches and projective research in architectural theory and practice. Design/methodology/approach - Further considerations focus on the advanced technological possibilities which re-invest the relations between principles of cybernetics and architecture. Findings - The current between art and architecture is more than ever manifested in fields related to the computer sciences and its conceptual background: cybernetic sciences. Originality/value - The paper re-thinks the aesthetic value of architecture and architectural experience in this time of digital productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to ask whether a first-order-cybernetics concept, Shannon's Information Theory, actually allows a far-reaching mathematics of perception allegedly derived from it, Norwich et al.'s "Entropy Theory of Perception". Design/methodology/approach - All of The Entropy Theory, 35 years of publications, was scrutinized for its characterization of what underlies Shannon Information Theory: Shannon's "general communication system". There, "events" are passed by a "source" to a "transmitter", thence through a "noisy channel" to a "receiver", that passes "outcomes" (received events) to a "destination". Findings - In the entropy theory, "events" were sometimes interactions with the stimulus, but could be microscopic stimulus conditions. "Outcomes" often went unnamed; sometimes, the stimulus, or the interaction with it, or the resulting sensation, were "outcomes". A "source" was often implied to be a "transmitter", which frequently was a primary afferent neuron; elsewhere, the stimulus was the "transmitter" and perhaps also the "source". "Channel" was rarely named; once, it was the whole eye; once, the incident photons; elsewhere, the primary or secondary afferent. "Receiver" was usually the sensory receptor, but could be an afferent. "Destination" went unmentioned. In sum, the entropy theory's idea of Shannon's "general communication system" was entirely ambiguous. Research limitations/implications - The ambiguities indicate that, contrary to claim, the entropy theory cannot be an "information theoretical description of the process of perception". Originality/value - Scrutiny of the entropy theory's use of information theory was overdue and reveals incompatibilities that force a reconsideration of information theory's possible role in perception models. A second-order-cybernetics approach is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to introduce the cybernetics audience to the fundamental interdisciplinary concept of hyperseeing and its application to hypersculptures. Design/methodology/approach - Briefly, hyperseeing is seeing from multiple viewpoints in a very general sense. In particular, the author first discusses hyperseeing a sculpture. A sculpture is defined as an object in a fixed position relative to a horizontal plane (base, ground). Two sculptures are congruent if they consist of the same object. A hypersculpture is a set of congruent sculptures. A hypersculpture is a more complete presentation of the sculptural possibilities of an object. Findings - A specific example is given of hyperseeing a knot sculpture made of copper tubing. Originality/value - The paper demonstrates how the study of hypersculptures facilitates gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation of sculpture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to better understand communication between musicians in a free jazz improvisation in comparison to traditional jazz. Design/methodology/approach - A cybernetic informative feedback model was used to study communication between musicians for free jazz. The conceptual model consists of the ears as sensors, an auditory analysis stage to convert the acoustic signals into symbolic information (e.g. notated music), a cognitive processing stage (to make decisions and adapt the performance to what is being heard), and an effector (e.g. muscle movement to control an instrument). It was determined which musical features of the co-players have to be extracted to be able to respond adequately in a music improvisation, and how this knowledge can be used to build an automated music improvisation system for free jazz. Findings - The three major findings of this analysis were: in traditional jazz a soloist only needs to analyze a very limited set of music ensemble features, but in free jazz the performer has to observe each musician individually; unlike traditional jazz, free jazz is not a strict rule-based system. Consequently, the musicians need to develop their personal symbolic representation; which could be a machine-adequate music representation for an automated music improvisation system. The latter could be based on acoustic features that can be extracted robustly by a computer algorithm. Practical implications - Gained knowledge can be applied to build automated music improvisation systems for free jazz. Originality/value - The paper expands our knowledge to create intelligent music improvisation algorithms to algorithms that can improvise with a free jazz ensemble. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To supplement Gregory Bateson's theory with findings from literary studies and attempt a new take on literary communication. Design/methodology/approach - On the basis of Gregory Bateson's "Theory of play and fantasy" the transmission of messages between author and readers is investigated. After that, it is attempted to show the particularities of literary messages and their communication, including different literary levels of what Bateson calls the "frame" of a message. The elements discussed include creativity, tension, surprise, Coleridge's notion of "the willing suspension of disbelief" in reading fiction and emotional response. Findings - While messages usually contain signs referring to an existing range of object representations, literary texts depart from and expand this range. The term "message" is subject to shift. The creativity of both author and readers allows a level of innovation that alters Bateson's categories: the metacommunicative level is not necessarily denoted by the message itself, and the metalinguistic level is adjusted to allow creativity that is existential for fiction writing and reading. Research limitations/implications - Trying to give a schematic introduction, this paper is rather an overview than an in-depth study. Originality/value - This paper discusses a part of Bateson's approach in the light of findings in literary theory and thus helps to create an interdisciplinary dialogue that makes both sides' achievements, respectively, accessible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to a transdisciplinary understanding of the nature of information. Design/methodology/approach – The work draws from previous work done on information in several disciplines and contexts, and proposes a new framework for describing and understanding information. It applies the framework to several different situations involving information, explores the insights revealed by the use of the framework and discusses some of the implications. Findings – Information is usefully described as a situated event that extracts or generates meaning, with the distinction between extracting or generating meaning corresponding to the distinction between semantic and environmental information. A diagrammatic convention based on communications theory and making use of hierarchies of levels is found to provide a powerful means of conveying many of the aspects of the nature of information, and of understanding the role of information in a wide range of applications. An additional specific finding of the work is that information is inherently provisional. Originality/value – The diagrammatic framework is a new way of presenting, describing and understanding information, and the suggestion that information is inherently provisional is believed to be new. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – In recent years, many development projects of the medical systems encounter difficulties and eventually fail. Failure is often due to very complicated and changeable medical procedures and the inconsistent understanding between system stakeholders, especially the healthcare providers, and information technology staff. Many research results also indicate that poor communication easily results in negative consequences during the implementation of the medical information system. To effectively overcome this obstacle, the purpose of this paper is to propose an enhanced Delphi method to assist in reaching consensus during the software development with some additional steps. Design/methodology/approach – As an alternative to the traditional way to elicit pertinent feedback from respondents, the enhanced Delphi method stresses the systematic, flexible, and cyclic stages to construct a questionnaire with viewpoints from different types of panelists and a self-assessment procedure as a validating step to measure the improvements in the system implementation. Findings – The better communication between the members of project team does increase the comprehensive assessment of a project. Originality/value – Based on a practical case, the enhanced Delphi method really demonstrates good performance and effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to advocate a change of perspective in the development of information science. At stake is whether this science will be able to make sense of both the astounding new practices in the world of knowledge and the even more astounding social transformations that revolve around information technologies. Tentatively a new way of thinking could be articulated along the guidelines herein discussed. An initial and important aspect concerns the definition of information itself. Rather than continuing with the endless discussions on what is information, it will be proposed, first, that information is indefinable per se; and second, that a consensus notion(s) might be established on how information should be handled in the core fields – or at least in the analysis of some prototypical “informational entities”. Design/methodology/approach – The research strategy proposed, naturalistic and empirically oriented, is based on the intertwining of self-production and communication flows as fundamental characteristics of informational entities – about “being in the world” in the informational way. Living cells, organisms (nervous systems), individuals, enterprises-markets, and societies would manifest these characteristics. In all of these existential realms, it is the collective action of communicating, self-producing agents or entities (“informational” ones, for short), connected in multiple, flexible ways, what makes possible the unfathomable complexity and adaptability emerging at all functional scales. Findings – Along this new perspective, meaning, knowledge, and intelligence may be approached rather consistently. The new conceptualizations may also be linked with the information revolution and the extraordinary expansion of knowledge in the times; a parallel with the knowledge-fundamentals of biological complexity will be suggested. Originality/value – Among the many problems to tackle for a renewed information science, a relevant matter concerns the way to organize the dialogue among so many different disciplinary perspectives dealing with information: it becomes an open question, indeed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to show, through a case study, the relationship between organizational learning and the need to improve the organization's management of complexity. Design/methodology/approach – A case study is used. Findings – The case study illustrates both how organizational learning needs a requisite structure to occur and how learning loops contribute to the viability of a project. Originality/value – This case study shows that designing learning loops requires setting up the structural conditions for a Human Communication System in the organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To show how Bateson's difference which makes a difference can be interpreted from a cybernetic view, i.e. in terms of control theory. Design/methodology/approach - Depending on the observer's choice of the system boundaries, communication or structural coupling may be recognized. With the help of Bateson's example he uses to explain his term of information the paper demonstrates how the two perspectives can be related to each other and in which way his metalogical "hypothesis non fingo" reflects this refraction of perspectives. Findings - Hypotheses describing structural coupling in the perspective of communication become explanations which then in circularity are verified by structural coupling. In his example Bateson describes a structural coupling between a dog owner and his dog in order to explain how he informs dogs. Originality/value - Provides information on Bateson's theory of explaining [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose ? The purpose of this paper is to review future and emerging information systems. Design/methodology/approach ? General review and survey of selected research and development topics. Findings ? Illustrates the multi- and trans-disciplinary nature of cybernetics and systems. Aims to further research and development activity. Practical implications ? The choice of review provides an awareness of the current trends in these areas of endeavour but are necessarily selective. Originality/value ? The reviews are selected from a global database and give a studied assessment of current research and development initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The presented study aims to address the subject of educating youngsters in cross-border regions to be responsible persons, tourists, hosts and neighbours, to accept cultural pluralism, and to raise awareness that knowledge of neighbouring countries' languages supports cross-border cooperation. Design/methodology/approach – The approach double-checked theory and legal regulation, and children's knowledge of neighbouring countries' (Slovenia, Hungary, Austria, and Croatia) languages was empirically researched. Indirectly, parental attitudes were examined. The study focused on Slovene and Hungarian languages and on their trans-border (or: cross-border) tourism as a cultural rather than economic topic. Findings – Cross-border tourism depends also on mutual understanding as a precondition of ethics of interdependence as a precondition of the requisite holism of one's approach via social responsibility enabling the well-being of both tourists and hosts. The socio-linguistic and socio-cultural aspects of neighbouring regions, e.g. Slovenia's Prekmurje and Hungary's Örseg, can support positive interaction between ethnic groups and enhance effective cross-border collaboration, including tourism. Poor knowledge of neighbouring countries' languages submits communities to third languages and hinders these trans-border experiences, making the regions a shared destiny maintaining their cultures, languages and identity. Language learning therefore must start at the earliest possible age. Originality/value – This case study advocates cross-border educational and cultural policy that (primary) schools should increase the awareness of the dependence of cross-border peace, positive stereotypes, economies and tourism on knowledge of neighbouring countries' languages and socially responsible (young/future) persons, tourists and hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To clarify the parallels and differences between the communication theories of Gregory Bateson and Paul Watzlawick. Design/methodology/approach - To conduct an analysis by a comparison of central theses of both authors, by texts. Findings - It was found that all five axioms of Watzlawick can be derived from theses of Bateson. Research limitations/implications - The comparison was limited to the five axioms of Watzlawick. Further research could analyse his whole communication theory, compare it with Bateson and others and thereby clarify Watzlawick's own share. Practical implications - The significance of Bateson's communication theory is strengthened. Originality/value - Direct comparison of central statements of both authors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The important role of functional and structural generalization of informative and communicative processes is considered. Design/methodology/approach - It is denoted that generalitics suggests a means to obtain a new information which is more rich in content, more useful, jamproof and optimal. An increasingly important role of generalitics in the development of the informative equipment is underlined. Findings - Upon the analysis made new attributes of information are suggested and estimated: informativeness, informness and informability. A clear description of the significance of generalization for the communication units is presented. Originality/value - Development of the theoretic foundations allows for the creation of new generations of the informative technique, automated control and telemechanic systems and communications as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]