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From 2008 to 2012, 4 separate cases of quail bronchitis virus infection were seen in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) raised in Minnesota. The quail chicks ranged in age from 5 d to 8 wk and suffered from respiratory distress and elevated mortality. On necropsy, gross lesions consisted of mucus in trachea, congested lungs, caseous air sacculitis, accumulation of chalky white urates on internal organs, necrotic foci in liver, and enlarged spleen. Histologic examination revealed fibrinoheterophilic rhinitis, heterophilic bronchitis, heterophilic tracheitis, and interstitial pneumonia in addition to deciliation, desquamation, and necrosis of bronchial respiratory epithelium. Karyomegaly with basophilic intranuclear inclusions was also seen in affected epithelium. Severe epicarditis, pericarditis, myocarditis, multifocal necrotizing hepatitis, and splenitis were additional pathological findings. Quail bronchitis virus (QBV) was isolated from all four samples when inoculated in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs. The virus was confirmed by electron microscopy and polymerase chain reaction using fowl adenovirus (FAdV) hexon gene-specific primers. Nucleotide sequences of the four isolates showed 99.0% identity with CELO strain of fowl adenovirus A. Nine nucleotide substitutions were observed; 3 of these were nonsynonymous (A281G, C314T and G565C), leading to changes in deduced amino acid sequences (S94G, T105M and A189P, respectively). Based on partial sequence of the hexon gene, QBV isolates of this study clustered closely with fowl adenovirus A and were different from FAdV groups B through E and from adenoviruses of goose, duck, turkey, and pigeon. Further studies are indicated to determine the impact of nonsynonymous substitutions on host specific pathogenicity of these viruses.

Adult Northern bobwhite were used to test the hypothesis that dietary methionine levels recommended by the NRC for breeding quail are excessive for wild bobwhite. We tested the hypothesis by comparing immunocompetence, reproductive performance, and chick viability of Northern bobwhite hens fed diets containing low (0.31%), moderate (0.39%), or high (0.47%) concentrations of methionine. Chick viability was determined by assessing immunocompetence, including evaluating the ability of hens to passively transfer immunity to their chicks. Hens were fed the experimental diets for 6 wk on an ad libitum basis. After 6 wk, methionine treatment had no measurable effect (P > or = 0.20) on hen phytohemagglutinin wing web indices, organ weights, or serum anti-Pasteurella multocida titer indices. Mean egg weight, percentage egg production, total cumulative egg production, yolk weight, yolk volume, and percentage fertile and percentage hatch of fertile eggs did not differ (P > or = 0.12) among diet treatments. Amount of albumen in eggs produced by hens fed the high methionine diet averaged 0.27 g more (P = 0.003) than eggs of hens fed the low methionine diet. Anti-P. multocida titer of yolks from eggs in Week 6 were not different (P = 0.36) between birds fed the high and the low methionine diets. The mortality rate of chicks after challenge with 23 cfu of P. multocida was not different (P > or = 0.05) among diets. Chicks hatched from eggs laid by vaccinated hens during Weeks 2 and 3, however, had lower (P < 0.05) mortality than chicks of unvaccinated hens. It appears a dietary methionine concentration of 0.3% may be sufficient for wild Northern bobwhite to produce viable chicks.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the protein requirement of adult bobwhite quail. Flight-type quail were used in one experiment and meat-type quail in the other. Corn and soybean meal diets containing 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24% protein were fed. Increasing the protein level of the diet from 12 to 15% significantly increased egg production with the flight-type bird. However, only a nonsignificant increase in egg production was obtained with the meat-type birds when the protein level was increased to 15%. Higher levels of protein did not result in further increases in egg production in either strain. Increasing the protein from 12 to 18% (flight) or 21% (meat) resulted in increased egg weight. Egg mass of flight-type hens receiving 18 and 21% protein was significantly greater than egg mass from hens receiving 12 and 15% protein. Hatch of fertile eggs, hatch of total eggs, chick weight, or weight of adult birds were not affected by protein level. Feeding the 12% protein diet resulted in significantly reduced fertility in the flight-type birds but not in the meat-type birds.

Changes in serum lipids, serum glucose, and gonadal development during maturation of Colinus virginianus were determined in two trials. In Trial 1, sex, BW, and serum concentrations of total cholesterol, high, low, and very low density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose were determined every 2 d from 2 to 14 d and weekly from 21 to 49 d. Relative ovary or testis weights between 14 and 49 d were determined weekly. Body weight increased and all measured serum constituents changed in males and females between 2 and 49 d; however, relative testis weight decreased between 14 and 49 d. In Trial 2, sex, BW, cholesterol, and relative ovary and testis weights were determined in birds at 56 and 63 d of age. The distinctness of external sexual phenotype and its relationship to BW, cholesterol, and relative gonadal weight were also determined at 56 and 63 d. Body weight increased and serum cholesterol decreased in both sexes between 56 and 63 d, but had no association with the distinctness of external sexual phenotype. It was concluded that the development of external sexual identity in male and female Northern Bobwhite quail prior to sexual maturity was not related to changes in BW, gonad weight, serum lipids, or serum glucose before 63 d of age.

Two 28-day experiments were conducted to determine the effects of various levels of ground Sesbania macrocarpa Muhl. seed on mature bobwhite quail. In Experiment 1, S. macrocarpa Muhl. seed levels of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% were added to a basal diet at the expense of filler and fed to five replicate groups of six 58-wk-old paired quail (one male and one female). Average daily feed consumption, hen-day egg production, average BW change, mortality, fertility, and hatchability were monitored. Four groups of eight individually caged females, 63 wk of age, were each given a diet containing 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10% ground S. macrocarpa Muhl. seed in Experiment 2. A seventh treatment was added that consisted of 10% ground S. macrocarpa Muhl. from an older seed shipment used previously in work with White Leghorn hens. Increasing S. macrocarpa Muhl. seed levels in Experiment 1 did not cause significant deviations from the control treatment for average daily feed consumption, BW change, hen-day egg production, fertility, total hatchability, or hatchability of fertile eggs. In Experiment 2 neither average daily feed consumption nor hen-day egg production were affected by seed level or source. Quail given the 10% seed level using the older seed shipment had a significantly greater weight loss than the control birds. With the exception of this greater weight loss and in contrast with work involving chickens, dietary levels of ground S. macrocarpa Muhl. seed of up to 10% were acceptable to bobwhite quail.

Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) received dietary mirex in concentrations of 1, 20, and 40 ppm to investigate reproductive effects of long term exposure to this chemical. Residue analyses of F0 generation breeders indicated that male adipose tissue contained approximately 10 times the mirex level in the diet. Elimination of mirex in females probably was facilitated by egg laying, which reduced mirex buildup in adipose tissue to five times the dietary level. Both sexes were noted to concentrate mirex in fat and breast tissue in direct proportion to the intake of dietary mirex. Eggs collected from F0 generation breeders were not affected deleteriously by mirex as measured by embryo survival to 3 weeks, and the number of eggs failing to hatch. Indeed, increased rates of egg fertility and hatchability were associated with higher dietary concentrations. Chick survival data was obtained in F0 and F1 generation hatchlings from hatching through 2 weeks. No chick mortality attributable to pesticide stress was detected in either group of birds. Eggs collected from F1 generation breeders that received 1 ppm were not affected harmfully as measured by embryonation, embryo survival, and hatchability rates. Comparison of residues in wild bobwhites with residues in our experimental findings indicates mirex is apparently not affecting deleteriously reproductive success of wild quail.

The efficacy of amprolium, monensin, and salinomycin in preventing coccidiosis in bobwhite quail was studied using a mixed inoculum of equal numbers of Eimeria dispersa and E. lettyae. A total dosage per quail of 10(6) sporulated oocysts was chosen because this dosage gave a good (77%) depression of weight gain from Day 18 to Day 24. Levels of .008% monensin or .0055% salinomycin were the most effective for prevention of coccidiosis as evaluated by body weight gains. These levels significantly reduced parasite numbers in the duodenum with monensin administration and in both the duodenum and ileum with salinomycin administration. Monensin reduced parasite numbers in the illeum significantly in one experiment and in a second. Amprolium was ineffective for prevention of coccidiosis, as evaluated by body weight gains. Amprolium was also ineffective in consistently reducing parasite numbers in the duodenum and ileum. Both monensin and salinomycin had a reasonable safety margin in quail. Levels of monensin of .016%, twice the proposed level, significantly reduced body weight at 14 days of age compared with unmedicated controls or quail given .008% monensin. By 28 days, however, this effect was no longer significant. Levels of salinomycin at the proposed level of .0055% significantly reduced body weight at 14 days of age compared with unmedicated controls. By 28 days, however, this effect was no longer significant in quail given .0055% or .00825% salinomycin, although in quail fed .011% salinomycin body weights remained significantly lower (16.5%) at that date. There were no detectable monensin residues in the liver of quail fed a ration containing .008% monensin for 8 wk.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A closed flock of Bobwhite quail was formed in 1970 with 200 males and 400 females. Random mating was practiced for three generations with very little selection. Breeders from the third random-mated generation were selected on the basis of egg production, fertility, and hatchability. Subsequent generations were selected also for high 8-week body weight. Eight-week body weight increased linearly with year of selection and averaged 143.75 g (combined male and female) for three generations. The heritability estimate was .325 ± .027 and was based on a total of 5199 observations.

Two experiments were designed to investigate the development of temperature regulation in Bobwhite quail. In experiment 1, eight groups of chicks were tested at 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days of age. Body temperatures showed a curvilinear trend, increasing from 1 to 20 days and then decreasing to 30 days of age. Body temperature within some groups also increased with testing order of the chicks and this effect interacted with age. In experiment 2, one group of chicks was tested at each of the above ages. After determination of body temperature, each chick at each age was cooled for 30 minutes at 24° C. and its body temperature again recorded. The same curvilinear trend in body temperatures with age was evident in this group; however, an increase in body temperature with testing order only occurred at 5 days of age. When cooled, chicks showed a decrease in body temperature of approximately 9°C. at 1 day of age and were able to maintain body temperature by 30 days of age.

THE purpose of the experiments reported here was to test the therapeutic effects of streptomycin on the disease known as ulcerative enteritis or quail disease in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). The work was initiated by one of use (CMK) early in August, 1949 when young quail which were being raised for another experiment began dying with ulcerative enteritis. Since the quail were being reared on wire it was felt that practical sanitary conditions were in effect, and as a possible emergency control, streptomycin was given an exploratory test. Sixteen birds eight weeks of age were selected at random from an infected pen and injected subcutaneously twice daily with 5 mg. of streptomycin in water for 12½ days. Sixteen quail similarly selected from the same infected group were held as non-treated controls. At the end of fourteen days only two of the treated birds had died, these in the first two . . .

THE Bobwhite quail is a useful avian species for research due to its adaptability to life in confinement and its identity as a wild species. Although much information is available concerning this species, only two published reports could be found describing the hematology of Bobwhite quail. Nice et al. (1935) reported a mean erythrocyte count of 3.5 mill./mm3. in a group of three female Bobwhite quail. Bond and Gilbert (1958) reported a mean packed cell volume of 38% with a mean erythrocyte count of 3.4 mill./mm3. in a group of four quail. This report describes the packed cell volume and differential leucocyte count of Bobwhite quail from 15 hours post-hatching to 50 weeks of age. MATERIALS AND METHODS Except for data collected at 15 hours and at one week post-hatching, all measurements herein reported were made on 24 Bobwhite quail chicks (17 females and 7 males). The birds were reared…

Three experiments were conducted to determine the response of bobwhite quail chicks when reared in pens with and without brooding paper. Half the chicks in each experiment was brooded Days 1 to 7 on brooding paper, which covered the litter within a brooder ring. The other half was brooded on either new or reused litter without paper. Results of all three experiments showed a consistent trend of higher 1-week body weights and lower cumulative 1 to 3 week mortality when birds were reared in pens without paper. Overall, no net performance advantages were found for rearing quail with brooding paper at the termination of the 3-week trials.

In two experiments, bobwhite quail chicks were given 0, 50, or 500 ppm ascorbic acid (AA) in the drinking water from 1 to 7 days of age. Both levels of AA significantly decreased mortality for the first 7 days and for the 3-wk average. Feed conversion during the entire 3-wk study was improved by 500 ppm AA. Body weight was not affected by AA supplementation.

VINCE (1964) reported that the embryo in a single Bobwhite quail egg, laid at the midpoint of a two-week production period and placed in an incubator with other eggs laid during the same period but already incubated for a period of twenty-four hours, tended to synchronize its hatching time with that of its sibs when the eggs were in contact with one another. Later, Vince (1966) found that the direct application of artificial stimulation either in the form of vibration or a “clicking” sound to an individual Bobwhite egg during incubation induced the embryo contained therein to hatch ahead of its siblings which had been incubated for the same period of time but had not been subjected to the artificial stimulation. In the hatching of pedigreed Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) eggs it was noted that embryos from the eggs of one family consistently hatched as much as twenty-four hours or…

BOBWHITE quail (Colinus virginianus) are hard to raise in captivity, mortality frequently amounting to forty to sixty percent of the hatched young. With this high mortality, quail rearing is both inefficient and costly. This experiment was designed to study the effect of different levels and sources of protein in the diet on growth and mortality of bobwhite quail to six weeks of age. Previous experimental work is in fairly close agreement regarding the percentage of protein required. Norris (1935) stated that quail required a twenty-seven percent protein diet for the most rapid growth to eight weeks of age. Nestler and Bailey (1942) tested diets containing twenty-two to thirty-five percent protein and reported that the diet containing twenty-eight percent protein gave the best general results. Baldini, Roberts and Kirkpatrick (1950) studied sources and levels of protein in quail diets. These workers reported good growth and livability on a twenty-eight percent protein …

Four experiments were conducted with purified diets to examine the influence of protein level and to estimate the sulfur amino acid (S.A.A.) requirement of young Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). These studies demonstrated (1) that 26% protein was sufficient for rapid growth when the diet was supplemented with methionine; (2) that diets containing higher levels of protein (29.3% and 31.3%) failed to support satisfactory growth unless they contained supplemental methionine; and (3) that young Bobwhite quail require no more than 1.0% sulfur-containing amino acids for optimal growth and efficiency of feed utilization. A fifth experiment was conducted to examine the protein and S.A.A. requirements of young Bobwhite quail using practical rations and to compare results with those obtained with purified diets. Diets containing 24%, 26% and 28% protein were supplied with and without supplemental methionine in a five week study. Results showed significant growth responses to protein and supplemental methionine. Responses showed that Bobwhite quail require no more than 26% protein for maximum growth and efficiency of feed utilization when the S.A.A. level of the diet was approximately 1.0%. The results were in close agreement with those obtained with purified diets. These findings define more precisely than had been known the quantitative requirements of young Bobwhite quail for protein and for the S.A.A. necessary for optimal growth.

Experiments were conducted with young Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) to investigate the effect of differing dietary protein levels and nondetrimental amounts of excess methionine on choline needs. Growth and feed consumption of quail fed an adequate (27.3%) protein purified diet supplemented with 2000 mg/kg of choline were unaffected by increasing the level of excess methionine to 1.75%; however, greater amounts (2.0%, 2.25%) of excess methionine depressed growth (P less than .01), reduced feed consumption (P less than .01), and decreased feed utilization (P less than .05). Quail fed a purified diet containing 13.85% protein and 515 mg/kg of choline grew poorly. Growth was unaffected by additional choline in this diet. Growth was suboptimal among quail fed purified diets containing adequate or high (41.55%) levels of protein in which choline was limiting; however, a high level of protein did not in itself affect performance. Growth was improved by supplemental choline in these diets. Growth of quail fed purified diets with up to 1.35% excess methionine which were limiting (531 mg/kg) in choline was less than that of groups fed 2000 mg/kg of added dietary choline (P less than .01); however, excess methionine did not significantly influence growth of quail fed choline-deficient diets. These experiments indicate that neither high dietary protein nor excess methionine, fed at non-growth-depressing levels, increases dietary choline needs for young Bobwhite quail.

Dietary ammonium phosphate and a water soluble antibiotic-vitamin supplement were tested as possible means of preventing or minimizing the effects of aflatoxin in the diet of Bobwhite quail chicks. Aflatoxin (B1) was added to the diet at levels of 0, 0.4 and .8 ppm in Experiment 1 and 0, .8 and 1.2 ppm in Experiment 2. In addition, ammonium phosphate was included in the diet at levels of 0 or 1.46% and an antibiotic-vitamin supplement was added to the drinking water at 0 or 600 mg/liter. All treatments were given from 1 to 32 days of age in Experiment 1 and 1 to 28 days of age in Experiment 2. The addition of aflatoxin to the diet resulted in decreased body weight, feed consumption and percent tibia ash, increased mortality and increased feed required per unit of body weight. The addition of ammonia to the diet in the form of monoammonium phosphate did not alleviate the effects of aflatoxin. Water supplementation with an antibiotic-vitamin mixture improved weight and feed efficiency and decreased mortality of chicks receiving aflatoxin.

In two experiments, bobwhite quail chicks were given 0, 50, or 500 ppm ascorbic acid (AA) in the drinking water from 1 to 7 days of age. Both levels of AA significantly decreased mortality for the first 7 days and for the 3-wk average. Feed conversion during the entire 3-wk study was improved by 500 ppm AA. Body weight was not affected by AA supplementation.

Two experiments were conducted to determine if Bobwhite quail chicks would adjust feed consumption according to energy intake from hatching to five weeks of age. Three starter diets, which were calculated to contain 2850, 3010 and 3170 Kcal. M.E./Kg., were fed throughout the five-week experiments. As energy was increased, the protein level was increased proportionally. Each treatment group consisted of four replicate pens containing 125 chicks each. Body weight at two and five weeks of age was not affected by treatment, except for a reduction at two weeks for birds on the 3170 Kcal./Kg. diet. There were no significant treatment effects on mortality. The feed consumed/bird/day decreased as dietary energy was increased. The calculated energy consumption/bird/day was 15.44, 15.31 and 14.79 Kcal., respectively, for the 2850, 3010 and 3170 Kcal. M.E./Kg. diets during the five-week period. The energy and protein consumption per gram of body weight was slightly reduced at the high energy level indicating a more efficient use of energy and protein of the high energy diet. These data indicate that the Bobwhite quail adjusts feed intake according to the energy content of the diet.

Bobwhites were fed one of several doses (.01 to 1,000 micrograms/day) of estriol (E3), beta-estradiol-3-benzoate (E2B), diethylstilbestrol (DES), or biochanin-A (BA) during two 10-week trials. The initial 2 weeks of each trial were short day length (10L:14D) followed by 8 weeks of long day length (16L:8D). In addition, female bobwhites were given daily injections containing dosages (.01 to 10 micrograms/day) of E2B, E3, and DES while housed on the same light regimen. Reproductive performance as assessed by onset of lay, egg production, and egg fertility was depressed in a dose-dependent manner and was inhibited by dietary dosages of 1,000 micrograms/day of E3, DES, and E2B. No consistent effects on reproductive performance were observed in bobwhites fed up to 1,000 micrograms/day of the phytoestrogen BA. Injected estrogens appeared approximately 100 times more potent than dietary estrogens. It was concluded that both dietary and parenteral estrogen can inhibit reproduction, but in order for phytoestrogen (BA) in natural feedstuffs to impair reproduction in bobwhites it would have to be consumed in excess of 1 mg/day.

An avian pox virus was isolated from cutaneous proliferative lesions removed from greater hill mynahs (Gracula religiosa) imported from Malaysia. Cutaneous inoculation of specific pathogen-free chickens and bobwhite quail with the mynah pox virus resulted in severe proliferative cutaneous lesions similar to those seen in the naturally infected mynah birds. Microscopically, the reaction in the chickens and quail at sites of virus inoculation was characterized by marked epithelial hyperplasia with ballooning degeneration and formation of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. Inoculation of conjunctival and oral mucosae of chickens by applying pox virus with a cotton swab did not result in gross or microscopic lesions. In cross-protection studies, chickens and bobwhite quail immunized with either quail, fowl, pigeon, turkey, or psittacine pox vaccines were not protected from challenge with mynah pox virus. Following vaccination of quail and chickens with mynah pox virus vaccine, there was no resistance to challenge by quail, fowl, pigeon, turkey, or psittacine pox viruses. Significant protection against development of lesions following inoculation with mynah pox virus was attained only when the homologous virus was used as a vaccine.

Four experiments were conducted to determine the suitability of various debeaking procedures for Bobwhite quail at hatching or at one week of age. Two experiments were conducted using a “precision” type debeaking method with the following treatments: control; debeaked at hatching with debeaker guide plate holes of 2.38 or 2.78 mm.; debeaked at seven days of age using guide plate holes of 2.38, 2.78 or 3.18 mm. Two experiments tested a “touch-burn” method at hatching with the following treatments: control; burned 1/4 distance to nares; and burned 1/2 distance to nares. The “precision” type methods at hatching or seven days of age reduced mortality from cannibalism; however, these methods were found to be relatively slow and difficult, and the birds lacked uniformity in beak and body size at five weeks of age. Burning 1 /2 distance to nares was too severe, causing a reduction in body weight and poor feed efficiency. Burning 1/4 distance to nares gave the most favorable results: growth and feed efficiency as good or better than controls, uniform birds and decreased cannibalism.

Within certain limitations of timing, embryos of one of the two species, Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) and Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica), influenced the hatching time of embryos of the other species when embryonating eggs of the two species were in contact during the latter stages of incubation. When the expected hatching time of Bobwhite quail was approximately three days later than that of Japanese quail, neither species exerted a significant influence over the hatching time of the other. Virtual synchronization of hatching time was achieved when Japanese quail were expected to hatch approximately two days ahead of Bobwhite quail and was accomplished by a significant speeding-up of hatching time of the Bobwhite quail coupled with a significant retarding of hatching time of the Japanese quail. Synchronization occurred where Japanese quail were expected to hatch approximately one day ahead of Bobwhite quail; however, in this case, the synchronization was achieved solely by a significant retarding of hatching time of the Japanese quail. When eggs of the two species were set at such a time that they were expected to hatch at approximately the same time, synchronization of hatching time was easily achieved. Where Bobwhite quail were expected to hatch approximately one day ahead of Japanese quail, sycnhronization of hatching time was not achieved even though hatching time of the Japanese quail was significantly speeded-up. Where Bobwhite quail were expected to hatch two days ahead of Japanese quail, neither species exerted a significant influence over the hatching time of the other.

Two experiments were conducted in batteries with raised wire floors to study the protein requirement of Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) chicks from one day to nine weeks of age. Chicks were fed protein levels ranging from 20 to 30% in a corn-soya diet. Chicks in these experiments required a dietary protein level of 28% for the best growth to six weeks of age. There appeared to be no change in protein requirement from three to six weeks as compared to one day to three weeks of age. The protein requirement of the Bobwhite chick from six to nine weeks of age appeared to be approximately 20%.

Egg sequence length, egg production rate, time of oviposition, lag-time and rate of ovum growth were determined for the Bobwhite hen. Hen-housed egg production was 38.9% with an average sequence length of 4.6 eggs when measured over an eight-month production period. The peak period of oviposition was from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. (EST). The length of time required for the rapid phase of ovum growth was approximately ten days.

Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of treating day-old quail by drenching either with a soluble tylosin, tartrate solution or plain water, or medicating for five days with tylosin in the drinking water. Diagnosis of dead birds indicated ulcerative enteritis infection. Quail drenched with plain water or tylosine had less (P less than .01) mortality than those given tylosin in the drinking water or the untreated control birds. There was no difference between quail drenched with plain water or tylosin. Birds given tylosin in the drinking water resisted mortality significantly better (P less than .01) than the control birds.