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Helicopter surveys have been used for some time to gain information about population density which is vital to the effective management of white-tailed deer populations. However, aerial surveys are not practical for small landholdings or leasings, and under these circumstances it may be preferable to census deer using infrared monitors that trigger automatic cameras. Research on this subject has established that a single helicopter survey would probably not provide an accurate estimate of population, sex or age.

Researchers have assessed techniques for capturing white-tailed deer in an urban environment using the Pneu-Dart delivery system and a mixture of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. Attention was given to factors including search times, distance and direction travelled by darted deer and recovery rates. It was found that darting methodology did not have an impact on recovery rates when using transmitter-equipped darts. The use of these darts allowed an improvement in rates of retrieval of missed shots and darts that did not lodge properly in unrecovered deer.

There is now growing public awareness in the US of the potential for using immunocontraception to control excessively large urban populations of white-tailed deer. This issue attracts considerable controversy, and can often split residents of urban areas where white-tailed deer are causing damage. Researchers are in a position to provide unbiased information about immunocontraception, but residents of affected areas are often unwilling to look beyond their own narrow views. If an immunocontraception project is implemented, it can prove very expensive because of the conflict it entails.

Problems with controlling white-tailed deer numbers at the Landings, a residential community situated on Skidway Island, GA, began in the late 1970s following a ban on hunting. Deer damage began to cause concern among local residents in the late 1980s, and the elected Board of Directors for the Landings set up a deer committee in Jul 1990. There was some controversy about whether deer control measures should be implemented, but deer control started in Aug 1994. Since then, 1,127 deer have been removed through hunting.

The Missouri Department of Conservation established a task force in 1989 to assess the extent of problems with white-tailed deer in urbanized areas and to draw up guidelines for managing urban deer. Considerable attention has been given to establishing population goals, taking into account the fact that urban Missourians often like to see deer. It has been possible to establish a protocol for setting up hunts if hunting is deemed to be necessary to control deer numbers on public areas.

Researchers have investigated the potential of contraceptives for controlling the growth of white-tailed deer populations in suburban settings. The implementation of a contraception program to limit deer numbers in Irondequoit, a suburb of Rochester, NY, involved using an adaptive management approach. This has four main steps, including gaining the approval of stakeholders for an agreed population size and making initial predictions about the impact of various management techniques. Adaptive management places strong emphasis on application of available data to make the best possible predictions.

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection encountered considerable hostility when it decided to implement a controlled hunt to reduce white-tailed deer numbers on Bluff Point Coastal Reserve, a 326-ha peninsula on the coast of Groton, CT. A hunt held in 1990 had to be stopped because of claims that the herd had been eliminated, and great care was therefore taken to inform the public about the need to reduce the herd before a further controlled hunt took place in Jan 1996. The 1996 hunt also attracted protestors, but it was possible to kill 233 deer.

There has been a significant rise in numbers of white-tailed deer in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in Ohio since the 1970s. It became clear in the late 1980s that there was a danger that large deer populations would soon have a negative impact on natural resources in the park. This prompted a variety of research projects, including monitoring of deer populations and of vegetation. The Cuyahoga Valley Communities Council also responded by creating a Deer Management Task Force in Sep 1993.

It was necessary for wildlife managers at Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in Pennsylvania to address many issues when considering how to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer. The National Park Service and the Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Pennsylvania State University created a cooperative research scheme in 1985, and research looked at issues including deer movements and habitat use. Work on a draft Environmental Impact Statement began in 1993, and public opinion was sought. A deer reduction programme removed 503 deer during the first year and 355 during the second year.

Excessive numbers of white-tailed deer have had a negative impact on the ecology of Brown County State Park in Indiana. It was decided in Mar 1992 by the Department of Natural Resources to establish a committee to address this problem. The activities of the committee were hampered by moves by a state alliance of environmental organizations to link deer densities within the park to forest wildlife management practices outside the park. Problems were also caused by lack of accurate information about deer population levels. However, it was eventually possible to remove 392 deer through a one-day hunt.

Virginia's Conservation and Research Center, which covers around 1,400 ha of pastures and deciduous forests and is situated on the west slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, has had a problem with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer since the 1970s. It initially turned to hunting in the 1980s to deal with this problem, but this attracted opposition from animal-rights groups. Early failures in deer management prompted extensive research, and considerable attention has been given to the impact of high deer densities on ecosystem processes.

Integrated pest management (IPM) can be a useful alternative technique for white-tailed deer management. This technique, which requires clear, precise targets to be identified, offers an interdisciplinary approach to the decision-making process. The IPM planning process provides selected management alternatives, and indicates cases where deer management problems can be addressed by linking alternatives or components of alternatives and by working with the private sector and federal, state and local agencies.

There has been a significant rise in the number and types of potential stakeholders in the decision-making process for establishing deer management goals as the problem of suburban white-tailed deer management has become increasingly serious in the US. There is now strong emphasis on innovative approaches to public involvement in suburban communities in deer management issues. It has been shown that the Citizen Task Force method can make a positive contribution to a local deer management program.

There has been growing interest in quality deer management in Texas since the 1970s. This state has the largest population of white-tailed deer in North America, and these deer are causing considerable ecological damage in some areas. Recent research has assessed various educational approaches to deer management directed at different stakeholder groups in the state. Some educational programs focus on producers, while others are aimed at consumers or young people. It has been established that there is a clear need for continuing education for wildlife professionals.

An analysis of approaches to the management of white-tailed deer populations in Pennsylvania can be used to highlight deer management difficulties being faced in many US states. Significant progress has been made in the technical aspects of deer management, but there has been a very slow response to the social and decision-making aspects of deer management. Wildlife management agencies such as the Pennsylvania Game Commission must now focus on making ordinary people aware of the consequences of excessively large deer populations.

Research into the impact of translocation on female white-tailed deer has tested the view that female deer related as matrilineal groups will stay closer to the release site and show a higher survival rate than unrelated females. Attention was also given to whether the presence of translocated deer has an impact on the traditional ranges of resident deer. It was established that translocating deer in social groups does not lead to a fall in the number that subsequently die.

Researchers have focused on the summer home ranges of eight social groups of female white-tailed deer in Huntington Wildlife Forest, Newcomb, NY, to test the prediction that female deer will not move into neighbouring low-density areas where other social groups are present. The findings support the view that areas of reduced density will remain because deer on the surrounding landscape will not respond to densities in neighbouring areas. It was established that social groups are mainly independent of each other in terms of geography, behaviour and genetics.

It is vital to improve understanding of the ecological links between deer and other ecosystem components if specific issues relating to deer overabundance are to be resolved. Research on this subject has looked specifically at the information requirements of resource managers responsible for white-tailed deer in the northeastern United States. It is vital that researchers from different disciplines join together to form partnerships with managers, recognizing that scientists can play a valuable role in designing and justifying experimental management schemes.

Research into the links between trends in deer populations and the attitudes of hunters towards deer management has used population data accumulated over 13 years for white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. It was established that many hunters are opposed to reducing deer populations. Many have no clear understanding of the connection between deer and their habitat or of the impact of excessive deer numbers on forested ecosystems. This indicates that it is vital for special interest groups to support efforts by the Pennsylvania Game Commission to manage deer populations.

Wildlife managers in North America have for most of the 20th century sought to protect the white-tailed deer. It is now becoming clear that their actions have had some negative repercussions. Deer are now becoming a nuisance in suburban areas, for example, and are causing extensive damage to crops and tree seedlings. Recent research on this subject has looked in particular at whether deer are acting as a 'keystone' herbivore to make significant changes to ecological communities. It may be worthwhile devoting some part of the revenue from hunting licenses to implementing monitoring programs.

Transmitter darts of 2 cc capacity, used to capture white-tailed deer, need only 4.0 person-hours per deer and achieve 100% recovery as compared to 3 cc standard darts which need 20.5 person-hours and allow only 52% recovery. The transmitter darts are used for wildlife management and facilitate public safety as they permit dart retrieval. The use of transmitter darts is very effective in environments with dense vegetation.

A study of white-tailed deer in South Texas revealed that tepary bean was nutritious but could not last due to the unsuitability of the season. The study indicated that the siratro and tepary bean are not consistent food sources for sandy loam soil. Common cowpeas still do better. Lablab purpureus survives despite grazing by white-tailed deer even better than cowpeas and is similar in taste and chemical composition. Thus lablab is a suitable alternative to cowpeas for the diet of deer living on sandy loam soil.

Resort development on Kiawah Island, a subtropical barrier island off the coast of South Carolina, has had a negative impact on the local population of white-tailed deer. The natural habitat of the deer is being destroyed, and this is forcing groups of deer into urban areas. However, there is little local interest in protecting the deer population, and it proved very difficult to gain approval for a deer ecology study. This study is now underway, and its supporters hope to find a deer management solution which will save the deer from starvation and preserve their dignity.

The New Jersey Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife has developed a community-based approach to dealing with the problem of white-tailed deer in suburban areas. Under its Community-Based Deer Management Program, it is working with a number of different local, state and national agencies to develop and use methods other than hunting to control deer in suburban settings. Suburban New Jersey communities are showing growing interest in addressing deer management problems, and 16 communities and two county park systems have been supplied with information and help.

There has been a significant increase in white-tailed deer populations in northern Mexico since the 1970s, when landowners realized that there were strong economic arguments in favour of taking action against poaching. Indeed, deer populations have become too large in certain areas, and this has led to the trapping of deer in these areas for translocation to ranches where more deer are required. The Mexican government is now adopting a new approach to deer management, as there is little demand for translocated deer. This includes creating areas for the sustainable use of wildlife.

A number of approaches have been adopted to deal with excessive numbers of white-tailed deer in the parks controlled by the Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District (CMPD). It was realized at an early stage that deer management could attract controversy, as deer have high visibility in a number of these parks. Furthermore, CMPD is funded mainly by a property tax approved by Franklin County voters, so public involvement was vital. Deer management techniques have included darting does with the prostaglandin drug Bovilene and relocating deer from several park areas.

The environmental damage from white-tailed deer grazing activities, in southern Quebec, is examined.

The objective was to compare deer harvest-reporting rates between mail-in archery-kill report cards and hunter surveys from the same group of bowhunters over a 3-year period and evaluate factors influencing harvest-reporting rates. It is concluded that harvest incentives would increase harvest-reporting rates, especially in areas with high deer populations, and that caution should be used when evaluating effects of harvest incentive programs.

A new technique is described for locating deer fawns, using thermal imaging technology. In this study, the thermal imaging system enabled capture efficiency of fawns to equal or exceed all other reported studies.

A study is undertaken to construct a procedure to detect and outline habitat-type boundaries, establish successional requirements, and create landscape-size systems with habitat potential for white-tailed deer. Results of the study are presented, which can help wildlife managers in planning and achieving habitat management targets.

An assessment is carried out on the application effects of special herbicide, prescribed fire, and fertilizer to enhance forage output for white-tailed deer in naturally restored pine stands and food plots in north-central Mississippi. Increased production in such controlled areas indicate the cost-effectiveness of such treatment in growing superior quality and natural deer food as compared to the quality in unmanaged regions.

A study is presented of the survival chances and causes of death of rehabilitated and released white-tailed deer fawns back into the wild in Missouri. Results reveal that most released fawns die in the wilderness or around human habitation, and hence, it is advised that fawns be left alone for greater survival opportunities on being discovered by humans. D

The survival and cause-specific death rates of newborn fawn female and adult female white-tailed deer in a vigorously farmed region of Minnesota was documented through an investigation. Survival was high due to thick and quality vegetation, but mortality was equally high, and caused mainly by hunting.

Cause-specific mortality, survival rates, and habitat characteristics related to fawn survival in forested landscape and an agricultural landscape in Central Pennsylvania are quantified. Survival-ship functions were estimated and influence on fawn survival of road density habitat edge density, habitat patch diversity and proportion of herbaceous habitat was assessed.

The theory of reasoned action could be useful to judge the type of information that could influence attitudes towards and support for novel suburban deer management techniques. The effects of tailoring information to the concerns of stakeholders were tested and two mail surveys were conducted.

A successful hunting ethic should be logically consistent and appealing to the moderate majority as the non-hunting, non-animal rights-advocate majority determine the fate of hunting. An alternative ethic that combines Aldo Leopold's vision of an expanding community with traditional utilitarian and rights-based evaluations of ethical criteria within n-dimensional frameworks is discussed.

White-tailed deer populations were found to shift closer to foot-bait sites placed within their home ranges. As food-bait traps are frequently used for deer populations for administering contraceptives, improving hunting success rates, and implementing tick control policies, the implications of altering core areas of deer activity are discussed.