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Purpose: To study whether novices can use sonification to enhance golf putting performance and swing movements. Method: Forty participants first performed a series of 2 m and 4 m putts, where swing velocities associated with successful trials were used to calculate their mean velocity profile (MVP). Participants were then divided into four groups with different auditory conditions: static pink noise unrelated to movement, auditory guidance based on personalized MVP, and two sonification strategies that mapped the real-time error between observed and MVP swings to modulate either the stereo display or roughness of the auditory guidance signal. Participants then performed a series of 2 m and 4 m putts with the auditory condition designated to their group. Results: In general our results showed significant correlations between swing movement variability and putting performance for all sonification groups. More specifically, in comparison to the group exposed to static pink noise, participants who were presented auditory guidance significantly reduced the deviation from their average swing movement. In addition, participants exposed to error-based sonification with stereo display modulation significantly lowered their variability in timing swing movements. These results provide further evidence of the benefits of sonification for novices performing complex motor skill tasks. Conclusions: More importantly, our findings suggest participants were able to better use online error-based sonification rather than auditory guidance to reduce variability in the execution and timing of their movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Golf coaches may recommend "blind" putting drills in which golfers close their eyes to improve their feel. Research on specificity of learning suggests, however, that adding or removing a source of sensory information after practicing under differing circumstances can cause performance decrements. Specificity of learning is also dependent upon specific task requirements. The purpose of this study was to examine whether golf putting, requiring body positioning and aiming an implement, would benefit from blind training. Method: Novice golfers (n = 24) in Vision Training (VT) & No-Vision Training (NVT) groups completed 108 trials of a 10-ft putt. After a 24-hr delay, both groups completed sighted- and blind-putting tests. Results: Acquisition results revealed Group × Block interactions in RE (p = .025) and y-VE (p = .032). Post hoc procedures revealed significant differences between the groups on Block 2 (p = .017), with the NVT group producing longer mean RE. During testing, RE and x-VE results revealed Group × Test interactions (p = .027 & .041), such that performance of the VT group suffered when transferred to blind putting, while performance of the NVT group did not differ when transferred. Conclusion: NVT did not confer any advantage for subsequent performance with vision. Moreover, results were not consistent with the specificity of learning hypothesis and suggest that putting does not rely on complete sensory integration to support subsequent performance. Presumably, task requirements related to body positioning provided adequate sensory cues for successful performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to examine the feasibility of concurrent verbal protocols to identify and map thought processes of players during a golf-putting task. Three novice golfers and three experienced golfers performed twenty 12-foot putts while thinking aloud. Verbalizations were transcribed verbatim and coded using an inductive method. Content analysis and event-sequence analysis were performed. Mapping of thought sequences indicated that experienced players' cognitive processes centered on gathering information and planning, while beginners focused on technical aspects. Experienced players diagnosed current performance aspects more often than beginners did and were more likely to use this information to plan the next putt. These results are consistent with experienced players' higher domain-specific knowledge and less reliance on step-by-step monitoring of motor performance than beginners. The methods used for recording, analyzing, and interpreting on-line thoughts of performers shed light on cognitive processes, which have implications for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During putting in golf, the direction and velocity of the club head should be consistent across swings. In order to maintain consistency in swing timing, the cerebellum provides temporal information, motor timing, control of rhythm, and timing of movements. We utilized Interactive Metronome (IM), a brain training software program that combines the concepts of neurotechnology with the abilities of a computer, to improve an individual's rhythm and timing. We propose that IM would activate neural networks involved in decreasing variation in putt swing. Twenty professional female golfers (KLPGA) were randomly assigned to either an IM training group (n = 10, 35-40 min per session, twice a week for 6 weeks) or a control group (n = 10). The golf putting movements and brain activity were analyzed using Kinovea Software and resting state functional MRI, respectively. Consistency was measured as the standard deviation of mean swing speed (SSD) during three sections of the swing: backswing (AD-BS), backswing-impact (BS-IMP), and impact-finish (IMP-FIS). Our results show that the consistency of the IM group improved in the time between the back swing and impact in the 2 m putt and 5 m putt compared to the control group. Using functional MRI, after the training period, the IM group showed increased functional connectivity from the superior cerebellar vermis to the right medial frontal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, right middle occipital gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, right cingulate gyrus, and right supramarginal gyrus (uncorrected p < 0.001, voxels > 40). These findings suggest that IM training in professional female golf players may improve consistency in putt timing. In addition, IM training may increase brain connectivity from the cerebellum to the frontal cortex, which plays an important role in motor control and timing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on adherence to preshot routines of elite collegiate golfers was evaluated using a multiple baseline (across subjects) design. Three male golfers served as subjects for the assessment of percent of mental and behavioral preshot routines completed for nine holes during baseline and treatment conditions. Players' shots and putts were videotaped and the tapes were scored to determine the percent of behavioral routines completed. Mental routines were assessed after each round via interview format. In addition, the number of strokes, putts, fairways hit from tee, and greens hit in regulation play for nine holes were also counted. The intervention taught each golfer how to consistently align to the target, make a good decision on each shot, and be totally committed to each shot. It was effective in improving players' adherence to both mental and behavioral preshot routines. Immediate improvements in performance did not occur. Post-treatment interviews showed that the golfers felt the intervention had a positive effect upon performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exploring relations between patterns of peak rotational speed of thorax, pelvis and arm, and patterns of EMG signals recorded from eight muscle regions of forearms and shoulders during the golf swing is the main objective of this article. The linear canonical correlation analysis, allowing studying relations between sets of variables, was the main technique applied. To get deeper insights, linear and nonlinear random forests-based prediction models relating a single output variable, e.g. a thorax peak rotational speed, with a set of input variables, e.g. an average intensity of EMG signals were used. The experimental investigations using data from 16 golfers revealed statistically significant relations between sets of input and output variables. A strong direct linear relation was observed between linear combinations of EMG averages and peak rotational speeds. The coefficient of determination values R 2 = 0.958 and R 2 = 0.943 obtained on unseen data by the random forest models designed to predict peak rotational speed of thorax and pelvis , indicate high modelling accuracy. However, predictions of peak rotational speed of arm were less accurate. This was expected, since peak rotational speed of arm played a minor role in the linear combination of peak speeds. The most important muscles to predict peak rotational speed of the body parts were identified. The investigations have shown that the canonical correlation analysis is a promising tool for studying relations between sets of biomechanical and EMG data. Better understanding of these relations will lead to guidelines concerning muscle engagement and coordination of thorax, pelvis and arms during a golf swing and will help golf coaches in providing substantiated advices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial experiential research into x-factor, and to a lesser extent crunch-factor has been undertaken with the aim of increasing clubhead speed. However, a direct comparison of the golf swing kinematics associated with each 'factor' has not, and possible differences when using a driver compared to an iron. Fifteen low handicap male golfers who displayed a modern swing had their golf swing kinematic data measured when hitting their own driver and five-iron, using a 10-camera motion analysis system operating at 250Hz. Clubhead speed was collected using a validated launch monitor. No between-club differences in x-factor and crunch-factor existed. Correlation analyses revealed within-club segment (trunk and lower trunk) interaction was different for the driver, compared to the five-iron, and that a greater number of kinematic variables associated with x-factor, compared to crunch-factor were shown to be correlated with faster clubhead speeds. This was further explained in the five-iron regression model, where a significant amount of variance in clubhead speed was associated with increased lower trunk x-factor stretch, and reduced trunk lateral bending. Given that greens in regulation was shown to be the strongest correlated variable with PGA Tour earnings (1990-2004), the findings suggests a link to player performance for approach shots. These findings support other empiric research into the importance of x-factor as well as anecdotal evidence on how crunch-factor can negatively affect clubhead speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At its core, like many other sports, golf is a game of integers. The minimization of the number of strokes played is generally what determines the winner, whether each of these are associated with the shortest of putts or the longest of drives. The outcomes of these shots are influenced by very slight changes, but hopefully in a deterministic sense. Understanding the mechanics of golf necessitates the development of models and this is coupled more often than not to the use of statistics. In essence, the individual aspects of the sport can be modelled adequately via fairly simplistic models, but the presence of a human at one end of the kinematic chain has a significant impact on the variability of the entire process. In this paper, we will review some of the ways that mathematics has been used to develop the understanding of the physical processes involved in the sport, including some of the analysis which is exploited within the Equipment Rules. We will also discuss some of the future challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In golf, play on the green has a large impact on final score and a great amount of time is spent on coaching and practice greens to improve putting performance. The study purpose was to measure putting outcome performance when different length putters were used with an anchoring mechanism. Seventy-two skilled golfers each executed a total of 60 putts using standard, belly and long putters from two distances. Putting mechanics were assessed using SAM PuttLabTM. From 1.83m (6 ft) participants holed 80.3% of putts with a standard length putter, dropping to 78.6 and 75.3% for belly and long-handled putters. At 3.66m (12 ft) participants holed 51.7% of putts with a standard length putter, and 50.8 and 46.9% for belly and long-handled putters. Shot performance showed no significant differences between or within clubs. There were significant (p<0.05) but small effect size between-club differences for swing time, putter head rotation and putter face impact spot. Results show that while anchoring may reduce putter head rotation it does not prevent rotation. It has been ascertained for a large cohort of different handicap golfers not accustomed to using longer putters that using an anchored putter will not necessarily provide a scoring advantage over using a standard putter without an anchoring system. Practice may better focus on the individual golfer's specific technical weaknesses identified by the performer or by a coach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines tests for hot- and cold-hand effects in men's professional golf, based on score relative to par over sets of 3,6, 9, and 18 holes. Using controls for each player's annual performance and the difficulty of a set of holes on a given day, I find no evidence for a hot-hand effect. In contrast, I find evidence supporting the existence of a cold-hand effect--that is, a poor performance on one set of holes leads to a worse performance on the next set of holes. Simulations demonstrate that the cold-hand effect is quite large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A proficient golf swing is composed of a sequence of highly complex biomechanical movements and requires precisely timed and coordinated body movements to achieve great distance and accuracy. The aim of the current study was to identify the key physiological and biomechanical variables that relate to golf drive performance. Eighteen golfers (handicap 11±6 strokes, playing experience 18±15 years), volunteered to take part in the study. Drive distance and accuracy were measured directly. Balance was assessed using a modified stork test and hand-eye coordination was assessed using a 3D maze. Average balance duration of both legs (r= 0.563; p=0.015), left leg (r= 0.620; p=0.006) and right leg (r= 0.488; p=0.044) were all significantly correlated to drive distance. Hand-eye coordination was significantly negatively correlated to total drive distance (r=-0.600 p=0.008), but was not associated significantly with the centre of hit between the clubface and ball. Several parameters were found to have significant relationships to golf drive distance in a group of amateur golfers. Therefore, training regimes could include tasks that aim to improve hand-eye coordination and balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

InPutter was designed for research, analysis and training to improve the performance in golf putting. The engineered putter is equipped with an inertial measurement unit (IMU), force sensitive resistors and heartbeat radio-frequency receiver compatible with Polar electrocardiogram (ECG) transmitters. With a high frequency of 100Hz, the device can be combined easily with other alternatives, such as cameras, to increase the range of applications and variables for further analysis. The putter is able to maintain energy autonomy (battery capacity) for up to four hours, which is ideal for both 'Pitch & Putt' and traditional golf games. After describing the hardware and software development, this article highlights and assesses the benefits of InPutter by validating experimentally its function using the data collected from professional/expert golfers. The data reveals a variety of different putting techniques and strategies. InPutter, with its innovative technologies, is able to measure all aspects of a putting stroke with great precision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this pilot study was to determine the association between the passive range of motion versus golf dynamic rotation range of both the lead hip and trail hip of healthy adult male golf players. Seven skilled male golfers between the ages of 18 and 40 years were selected randomly. Passive hip rotation range of movement (ROM) measurements were collected with a hand-held inclinometer. Dynamic kinematic hip rotation data were captured with a high-speed opto-electric 3-D motion capture system during a golf swing. There was a positive correlation (r= 0.42) between the passive hip ROM and dynamic hip range of movement during the golf swing of the lead hip, but the correlation was not significant (p= 0.34). There was a weak negative correlation (r=-0.05) that was not significant (p= 0.9) between the passive hip range of movement and dynamic hip range during the golf swing of the trail hip. Clinicians and coaches should thus note that improving passive hip ROM might not be associated with an increased hip rotation utilised during the golf swing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the game of golf the putter is used for 40 to 50 percent of all strokes during a round. Therefore, it is important for a golfer to find the putter that suits the own game best and that promises the most success on the green. Compared to all their other golf clubs, average recreational golfers usually select their putter relatively fast - the main criterion for choosing a specific putter being the first impression after a few practice strokes. The purpose of this paper therefore is to find out whether this first impression is reliable in the process of finding a putter, a study was completed. The study was conducted with ninety test subjects of varying skill levels and experience. This study used three different types of putters. The putting accuracy of each test subject with every test putter was recorded. The subjects had to twice fill in a questionnaire about their perception of the putters’ properties before (Q1) and after (Q2) the putting sequences. The results of Q1 and Q2 were set in relation to the analysis of putting accuracy resulting in low number of successful identifications for Q1 and more than twice the number of successful identifications of Q2. An analysis of the handicap and the playing experience of the test subjects indicates that golfers of all skill and experience levels are able to find the best putter through the first impression. However, the results showed that the identification rate is still low. The paper therefore concludes that a golfer should not rely on the first impression alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]