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The article throws light on the psychology of attitudes and gives insight into one aspect of newspaper behavior. An analysis of the rumors regarding communist leader Joseph Stalin's real or pretended illness in thirty newspapers in Paris, France revealed that the papers tended to publish rumors that arced with their political attitudes. Anti-communist papers published rumors stressing Stalin's illness and a crisis in Russia; communist papers ignored the subject or carried rumors denying the illness and crisis. Studies such as this might be used as a test for listing and grouping papers according to their political attitudes. Studies have been made repeatedly showing that the news content of newspapers is influenced by their editorial political attitudes. Less attention has been paid to the question of susceptibility to editorial manipulation. The collection of all rumor echoes in daily newspapers was undertaken during a period of four months. All news items, which had a particular character of vagueness, lack of authority regarding their source or outright improbability, were included regardless of whether or not rumor as a source was specifically mentioned.

This paper reviews the literature on authority patterns in Indian organizations in a comparative framework. These patterns are found to be dominated by the parental ideology of authority relations. On the basis of an empirical study, the paper suggests that this ideology, though legitimized by social-cultural factors, may be dysfunctional in having a negative effect on subordinate performance and satisfaction. The results of the empirical study suggest the hypothesis that the effect of social-cultural factors on organizational behavior is better understood through the concept of psychosocial identity, in which the effect of occupational identity is an extremely important factor, rather than through the concept of national character with its implications of cultural relativism in work behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this first of a series of four papers on the effects of acculturation on personality and attitudes, students in four Uganda secondary schools, chosen to represent four levels of acculturation, were tested on sentence completion, thematic apperception and figure-drawing tests, in regard to their political awareness and attitudes toward authority figures, especially chiefs and Euro-peans. These 211 Ss in the Buganda province of Uganda were then compared with 144 Ss in the North Nyanza province of Kenya who were assumed to be less acculturated. The findings support the hypothesis that the more acculturated more frequently than the less acculturated feel hostile toward authority figures. The findings suggested further that the more acculturated more frequently than the less acculturated tended to perceive authority figures as punitive, but were mixed in their opinions about authority. In comparison with the less acculturated Kenya sample, the Uganda sample were more aware politically, more actively discontent with the political status quo and more nationalistic in their identification. Non-monotonic relationships with degree of acculturation were found in regard to readiness to identify with the European and covert tendency to view the European as dominant The significance of these findings will be discussed in the fourth paper of this series. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the applicability of Parsonian "pattern-variables" in defining a constructed type. Specification of boundaries or cutting-off points of role relationships in Weber's three types of authority systems, while an intriguing problem, is a project too great in scope for a short paper. Instead, for this preliminary attempt, a social system has been selected in which a few crucial role relationships define its character. It is also a system familiar to sociologists. The setting selected is the educational institution at the university level. The type to be defined, "the seat of learning," is perhaps the most "ideal" of ideal types. A number of other constructed type educational institutions might be isolated, e.g., "marriage markets," "sources of status," "diploma mills," or, perhaps, "campus playgrounds." Sets of role relationships could be specified to define any of these types. For purposes of illustration, however, the definition of one type will be sufficient. Four steps are involved in defining the constructed type: (1) selection of the crucial role pairs; (2) the definition of the chosen role relationships by use of the pattern-variables; (3) measurement of the pattern- variable choices; and (4) establishment of boundary points for the pattern-variables themselves. The fourth step will not be completed in this paper; it is felt that the necessary methodological apparatuses are already available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four measures have been developed from the Tomkins-Horn Picture Arrangement Test which can provide reliable information regarding the level of conformity in various groups. The present paper deals with the upper strata of the business and academic worlds. Evidence is presented which bears directly on assertions that top executives have remained relatively uninfluenced by pressures to conformity, while university professors have succumbed to these pressures. The author finds that conformity and deviance occur in both occupational groups, and that both are on the average less conforming than the typical college graduate. This relative nonconformity appears, however, to be an artifact associated with age differences. Professors and executives are, in general, no less conforming than others when age is held constant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the bases of formal authority—legitimacy and position—need to be distinguished from sources of functional authority—technical competence and human relations skills—which support and often compete with formal authority. Four analytical types of authority relations are developed from the literature and the examination of superior-subordinate relationships among seventysix of the seventy-seven members of three public service organizations. In all three organizations, but particularly among welfare workers, considerable importance was attributed to legitimacy and position as bases of authority. Police officers, however, singled out authority of person more frequently than either authority inherent in position or authority derived from superiors. Welfare organization members attached more importance to legitimacy and position than to technical competence and experience as sources of authority. School employees stressed professional competence as a base of authority much more than either police officers or welfare workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on attitude content and agreement set in autonomy-authoritarianism items for the United States, African, and Philippine university students. For the past 10 years, the relationship between attitude content and agreement set in a variety of scales has been discussed in the social-psychological literature. The problem is that when a person is asked to agree or disagree with a statement from a scale, he may or may not have a relevant attitude, so his response may indicate either attitude content or a response tendency to agree or disagree. One method for dealing with this problem is to use balanced scales where half the items are scored in each direction. Thus, in developing a 36-item Autonomy-Authoritarianism scale for cross-cultural comparison, an equal number of autonomy and authoritarian items were included. The present paper will consider the implications of these findings for the problem of attitude content and agreement set. These results have the advantage of extending the problem to several non-European groups and to a new set of items.

On a priori grounds there seems to be a logical relationship between the personality variable "authoritarianism" and the acceptance of military ideology. Military organizations, of necessity, operate in a fairly authoritarian manner and presumably individuals predisposed to accept authoritarian ideology should accept and reflect ideas on attitudes and behavior which these organizations hold. Some of the variables allegedly measured by the scale appear relevant to the problem of military acceptance, while some others, on the surface at least, appear less so Conventionalism, submission to and enforcement of authority, toughness, and practical "hard-headedness" could be classed in the former group. Superstition, destructiveness, projection and exaggerated concern with sexual "goings on" appear less relevant. The theoretical considerations leading to the prediction of military acceptance by "authoritarian" individuals do not necessarily lead to the opposite prediction that "equalitarian" individuals will reject the military.

Five primary dimensions of organization structure were defined and operationalized; (1) specialization, (2) standardization, (3) formalization, (4) centralization, (5) configuration. From comparative data on these dimensions, in fifty-two different work organizations in England, scales were constructed to measure sixty-four component variables. This made it possible to construct a profile characteristic of the structure of an organization and to compare it directly with that of other organizations. Principal-components analysis was used to help in the interpretation of inter correlations among the scales. The resulting factors suggested four basic dimensions of structure, conceptualized as structuring of activities, concentration of authority, line control of workflow, and size of supportive component. This multifactor result was considered to demonstrate that the concept of the bureaucratic type is no longer useful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two main definitions of democracy have been used in the analysis of union politics; either as leadership responsiveness to membership opinion, or as the institutionalization of opposition. This paper rejects both definitions, instead defining democracy as the survival of faction. The survival of faction is explained by the pressures which prevent union Executives from destroying it. These pressures fall into twelve categories: political culture; government attitudes and behaviour; membership distribution; industrial setting; economic environment; technology; source of union bargaining power; membership characteristics; membership beliefs; opposition expertise and resources; leadership beliefs; and union structure. The contrasting political histories of the A.E.U. and the N.U.R. are explained by contrasting patterns of constraints. The paper concludes with a formal statement of the characteristics associated with union democracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presents a paper that analyzes the nature of power. The authors say that the word power itself is ambiguous. So, in this paper, by power they do not mean a faculty, such as thinking or willing. Neither do they mean simple capacity, nor do they mean the mechanical force or energy. Rather, by power they mean the power that is social in nature and that involves, in some way, the imposition of one's will on others. Power involves something more than merely directing or intentionally influencing the actions of others. This something more is the ability to impose one's will on others even though they are opposed to this imposition or the ability to impose one's will on others whether they approve or not. Thus, government is considered to have power over its citizens because it can impose its will on them even though they are opposed to this imposition, because it can punish them and because it can give them certain commands and cause them to obey these, even though they do not want to do so, by threatening to punish disobedience. Power, therefore, may be defined as the ability to impose one's will on others even though they are opposed to this imposition. A final point to note about the power that lies in the ability to give and compel obedience to commands is that one can exercise it without having personal contact with the persons over whom one exercises it. The three specific types of power are: economic power, political power and absolute power.

This paper reports observed differences in group Rorschach records as between a number of candidates appearing before an officer selection board who were recommended for officer training, and a similar number of candidates appearing simultaneously who were rejected as officer material. Since the Rorschach records were not employed in the appraisal of each candidate, these differences may serve to indicate the possibility of achieving such a screening by means of this particular form of the group Rorschach technique and may suggest aspects of the Rorschach records which differentiate leaders from non-leaders. This latter possibility must depend largely upon the rationale of operation of the board and upon the assumption that in identifying acceptable and unacceptable candidates the board actually identified leaders and non-leaders. The criterion of this study is therefore whatever concepts of leadership and selection the board operated with. These are discussed in some detail. The procedure is then described and the following findings are outlined. The selected leaders seem to: (a) give more responses-a tendency generally claimed to be correlated with higher intelligence and apparently, by itself, of little significance otherwise; (6) give more human movement responses which are supposed to suggest mature intellect and cultural interests; (c) give more textural responses which are said to imply some capacity for social contact; (d) give more FM + m, i.e., animal and inanimate movement responses which is said to suggest a basic introversion but also represents a toning down of the intellectualization represented by the human movement responses and a capacity for what Bochner and Halpern call "unsophisticated contacts and a general zest for life"; (e) give more achromatic responses which supposedly suggest a capacity to assume a role fitting in with the requirements of the situation. No attempt has been made to give meaning to the pattern of scores obtained from Margulies' study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adult is everywhere immersed in authority relations. Sometime in the individual life history each person becomes socialized to authoritative behavior as a fundamental mode of human relations. It is the purpose of this paper to illuminate the processes of socialization to authority. We start with the classic definition of authority, namely: a given person designating a course of action/or another person in some circumstance of choice among alternatives, where the alternatives are perceived by both (43). When an individual chooses behavioral alternatives for another, he holds authority over the other person. It is as simple as that. Many traditional analyses of authority have concentrated on the choosing processes, subsequently evolving into a field of analysis known as "decision theory." We do not follow this course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When political rulers are greedy for power, when they wish to maximize their autonomy in the face of feudal, bureaucratic and other impediments, they tend to avail themselves of the services of alien groups of men who have no roots in the country they rule. The rootless alien is an ideal servant of power who can easily be bent to the ruler's purposes because he is totally dependent and cannot accumulate autonomous power. Which particular alien groups can be used for these purposes depends on availability and historical circumstances. This paper deals with two historical cases: The Court Jews of Baroque Germany and the Christian renegades who served the Ottoman Empire at its height. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emphasis in the title of this paper is not on "leadership process." The word "process" calls attention to the interplay of factors in a total situation. The situation is fundamental and in all cases makes the leader. This is obvious in everyday life and in history. The Adolf Hitler's and the Benito Mussolini's are made by situations and they can be understood only in terms of those situations. Their characteristics are indicative of times in which they live and situations of which they are a part. Groups do not act because they have leaders but they secure leaders to help them to act. Leadership study calls for a situational approach this is fundamentally sociological, not psychological. Leadership does not reside in a person. It is a function of the whole situation. The situation calls for certain types of action, the leader does not inject leadership but is the instrumental factor through which the situation is brought to a solution.

This paper. examines the relationship between professionalism and the resolution of authority conflicts among Catholic clergy. The data were gathered from 166 priests in the Archdiocese of Washington, D.C. in the spring of 1969. The ma/or hypothesis of this study is that the more professional a priest is, the more he will tend to resolve authority conflicts contrary to traditional norms established by the hierarchy of Church officials. The evidence of this study strongly supports such an hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the usefulness of the Guttman-type scale instrument for the measurement of family authority patterns. This scale utilized six Likert-type questions, the responses to which were used to classify the families of these young people as authoritarian, intermediate, or democratic. The research presented in the present paper represents an attempt to determine the feasibility of further use of this scale, and whether improvements may be made in it. Several questions arise in connection with the use of any Guttman scale. The first has to do with the a priori definition of the universe of qualitative data which a scale is supposed to represent. The second question that arises is whether the items in the Stone-Landis instrument will scale for a sample of young people different from the one on which it was developed.

Studies of social movements have devoted a great deal of attention to types of leadership and problems of leadership change. Max Weber's concept of charismatic leadership has had an immense influence upon the thinking of sociologists about the sources of authority and dominance in changing political life. The "natural history" approach of many writers has stressed the decline of enthusiastic, agitational leadership and the development of statesmanlike, bureaucratic administrators as movements have become formally organized into stable structures. The approach of these studies has been on leadership changes through time as a function of different forms of structure and of different situations in which organized movements operate as they become large and institutionalized. It is our intention, in this paper, to examine the problems of leadership from a slightly different perspective. We are concerned with the conflicting types of demands made upon persons in leadership offices in many different situations. The focus of our attention is upon the persistent demands that leaders function within and before diverse audiences. In social movements, as well as in other complex and large organizations, the incumbent leadership is the center of demands to function in both internal and external environments. He is at the head of a hierarchy of authority and decision-making within the movement. At the same time, in the effort to affect change and to prevent the detrimental damage of a hostile environment, he operates in an environment of clients, enemies, adherents and potential recruits in which he has no authority and in which he represents the movement. The tension between these two areas gives rise to some characteristic problems of movements and their leadership. The empirical analysis given here is largely drawn from one organization—The Woman's Christian Temperance Union. It deals with leadership in two different periods—at the turn of the century and in the mid-1950's. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central concern of this paper is the conceptual interrelationship among "class," "property," and "authority"; the context is Dahrendorf's well-known critique of Marx's theory of class, wherein Dahrendorf contends that Marx erroneously specified the determinant of class, in part because of his alleged reliance on organismic analogies. After reviewing certain features of the structure of Marx's theory, the paper examines the foregoing and two related criticisms made by Dahrendorf, and concludes that the latter (1) overlooks crucial characteristics of Marx's theory, (2) engages in confused comparisons of "organism" and "society" in order to support part of his critique, (3) misrepresents Marx's usage of "property," (4) obfuscates the concept of authority by equating it with domination, and therefore (5) constructs an alleged supersedent to Marx's theory of class that is actually grounded not in class or any other material difference but in the fabric of justifications ("ideologies," "derivations," etc.) that are socially provided the material differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A paper on authoritarianism and men's reactions to sexuality and kindness in women is presented. Respondents are 64 college males divided into high and low authoritarians. They were made to see a silent movie with two scenes, one sexual and the other, a beautiful woman. The high authoritarian group viewed the star as more sexual than kindly. Further, they split sexuality and emotions in heterosexual behavior to a substantially greater degree than was assessed by low authoritarians. As contrasted with the low authoritarian group, the high authoritarians were likely to form unfavorable impressions of the star in which kindness and sexuality were not combined in one person.

This article focuses on the relationship between the exercise of authority and the dissemination of information in a research laboratory. It states that organizational changes enabled the study of vertical and horizontal mobility in the dissemination of useful technical information. It mentions that it was discovered that perceived performance was related to the problem solving process when management evaluated the situation rather than when colleagues did. It commented that the control system type and how managers interpreted it affects communication, with managers who engage in frequent managerial meetings and utilizing a laissez-faire approach to research management can find themselves cut off from their staff.

This paper presents a theory of participant behavior in (hospital) organizations which integrates internal and external cultural influences on such behavior. Emphasis is placed upon the relationship between extra-organizational variables (especially ascribed and achieved statuses) and model types of organizational "anchorages"-in the authority system, in the co-worker system and in the clientele system. The analytical connection between organizational anchorages and extra-organizational variables is made in terms of a theory of status deficits and surpluses. The hypothesis developed is that participants with lower status in the society-at-large have status deficits which lead to "authority anchorage" in the organizational system. Alternative anchorages of other participants are discussed as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study of 19 manufacturing organizations revealed structural differences between relatively high and low performing organizations. Cluster analyses of the correlations among eleven measures of structure isolated three relatively independent dimensions of (a) decentralization, (b) specialization, and (c) formalization among the ten high performing firms, but failed to produce any such independent dimensions among the low performing firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence is presented that college students of the late 1960s, as contrasted with those of the early 1960s, had low levels of competitive motivation, and negative attitudes toward authority figures, assuming managerial roles in large bureaucracies, accepting administrative responsibility, and assuming masculine roles. No consistent differences were found in attitude toward assuming a differentiated role or power motivation. The data support an hypothesis that students' attitudes changed, rather than the hypothesis that the addition late in the decade of a small group of students with extreme attitudes accounted for the results. These findings have implications for the study of student activism and for a theory of value-transmission across generations. It appears that the Protestant ethic is declining in influence, but that it is not being replaced by a social ethic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the relationship between the achieved status of the leader and productivity in group problem solving of 27 experimental groups, which consisted of the principal and three teachers, with nine of the principals having high achieved status, nine moderate achieved status, and nine low achieved status. The task consisted of both analysis and synthesis. Groups having principals with high achieved status were the least productive in the analyzing phase. The achieved status of the principal and group productivity were found to be directly related in the synthesizing phase. The results indicate that high achieved status in a leader has dysfunctional, as well as functional consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study of the controller's decision-making authority, controllers, their peers, and superiors in 25 firms were interviewed for their perceptions of the controller's authority in specific decisions. The data indicate that controllers do not have the same authority in all their functions or in the various decisions within those functions. Also controllers, their peers, and superiors have different perceptions of the controller's authority. A comparison is made with the findings of an earlier study on personnel managers, and some implications are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempts to link the formal structure of bureaucratic organizations to decision-making processes, and in particular to centralization or decentralization of authority. Interview data were obtained from 254 city, county, and state departments of finance. These data show that, controlling for an organization's size, decision-making authority is more highly centralized as the number of subunits in an organization increases; but as the number of levels of supervision grows, there is greater decentralization and at the same time proliferation of rules that specify criteria to guide decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

East African colonial officers were confronted with several alternatives in developing local political bureaucracies which could exercise external authority over their clientele and operate efficiently by bureaucratic standards. In tribal systems with articulated political roles (e.g., Uganda) attempts to adapt the traditional roles to modern usage frequently resulted in decreased bureaucratic efficiency. In acephalous societies similar policies led to similar results (Tanganyika), but attempts to graft on efficient roles resulted in decreased authority, as in Kenya. The maximization of one goal seemed to minimize the achievement of the other. Eventually role stress caused by increasing bureaucratic complexity endangered internal efficiency, and external authority was vitiated by the growth of modern competing political structures. It is suggested that the apparent incompatibility between the requisites of internal efficiency and external authority was due to overemphasis on one goal or the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional forms of scientific teamwork consist of freely collaborating professional peers and of teachers and their students. The primary problems concern the deployability of professionals, tension between the teaching and the research-assistance aspect of the professor-student relation, and difficulty of combining teams of professional peers with student-teacher teams. Economic and technological changes in research have stimulated the development of new forms of teamwork involving greater dependence of scientists on external authorities, greater centralization of authority in research organizations, and a complex division of labor involving professional technicians and professionals from various disciplines. The distinctive problem of modern forms of teamwork concerns the selection of research goals. Although modern forms of teamwork have tended to displace traditional forms in such fields as nuclear physics and space science, it seems unlikely that traditional forms have been or will be abandoned for most basic scientific research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although all organizations strive to maximize the commitment of their members to the official ideology and programs of operation, few attain complete success. It was hypothesized that a major determinant of the effectiveness of indoctrination in prison was the strength of the authoritarian predispositions of the inmates, the stronger their authoritarianism the greater their propensity to accept the official policies and programs of the organization. Two factors were seen as affecting this relationship, the nature of the authority structure and the type of inmate subculture. The traditional prison presents a pattern of these elements which contrast sharply with that of the treatment-oriented institution. Data collected in a small treatment-oriented prison camp supported the hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The approach to the Spanish colonial bureaucracy is that of the "conflicting standards analysis;' first suggested by Andrew Gunder Frank. Given the ambiguity of goals and the frequent conflict among the standards, all the laws could not be enforced simultaneously. The prevalence of mutually conflicting standards, which prevented a sub-ordinate from meeting all the standards at once, gave subordinates a voice in decision making without jeopardizing the centralized control of their superiors. Historians have traditionally assumed that the Spanish administration had a nonambiguous set of goals and that standards of conduct for its administrative agents were not mutually conflicting. The conflicting-standards hypothesis, however, provides a more satisfactory explanation of the wide gap between the law and its observance in the Spanish empire. Particular emphasis is given to an analysis of elements of centralization (the residencia and the visita) and those of decentralization ("I obey but do not execute" formula). This approach not only applies to the Spanish-American administration; it may also throw some light on the structure and nature of several kinds of bureaucratic organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of authority has been selected as the critical dimension through which various theories and practices of organizational behavior are expressed. Following a discussion of the confusions and lacunae in leadership theory, a review of philosophies, ideologies, and practices is presented that identifies two major movements: the traditional theorists and the human relations proponents. Some attention is given to the contemporary revisions and models that endeavor to ameliorate the tensions between the aforementioned movements. Finally, an explication of leadership is presented that attempts to account for the efficacy of certain leadership propositions with respect to a priori criteria of organizational effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rationalization of industrial management has limited the role of innovation and encouraged the substitution of the concept of manager for that of entrepreneur. The author shows that the distinction is still useful if entrepreneurship is redefined in terms of formal authority. This requires the replacement of Schumpeter's classical emphasis upon innovation with Weber's concept of the entrepreneur as the source of all formal authority within the organization. A survey of German management suggests that Weber's definition and the author's concepts are operational. Other bases of differentiation such as decision making, functional role, and charismatic qualities are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on employees who act as an interorganizational link between their company and their customers. This role is usually one held by an outside salesman and the author notes that this job done more productively and with greater satisfaction when the salesman has a greater amount of power, authority and a more equal status relationship with clients. The author suggests that a proper balance of these three components makes this individual the most effective which, in turn, increases the organization's effectiveness.

The article focuses on sources of role conflict in complex organizations. Principles of organizational authority include chain of command, unity of command and direction, and single accountability. Organizations structured on hierarchies are based on the chain-of-command principle, which has a single flow of authority from top to bottom. Multiple chains of command can occur in professional organizations where employees are accountable to more than one person, in hospitals where authority is represented by administrators and physicians, and in line and staff organizations where there is project and department supervision. Research about job satisfaction, resolution of role ambiguity, prevention of role conflict, and criteria for successful problem-solving meetings is discussed.

This article offers information on management theory and principles of management. Offered is an examination of the internal operating environment of organizations with the goal of categorizing several of the dimensions which tend to create the dynamic uniqueness of each specific decision-making situation. Topics include a discussion of the history of universalist philosophy, management principles, and previous attempts at identifying situationality by such authors as Chester Barnard and William G. Scott.

While authority may be delegated, power is a personal thing derived from the individual's own special skills, integrity, and contacts. It is achieved and kept through the user's recognition that he possesses power and his continuing and well-timed use of it, not for purposes of domination, hut to get things done. But, this writer observes, it is a two-way street with its own checks and balances, the greatest of which is the possession by one or many members of a corporation of the means essential to the realization of the goals of others, including the objectives of the organization itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempts to determine whether differences exist in the perception of the first-level manager's authority as seen by the first-level manager and his immediate superior. It also attempts to relate the differences that are observed to some general factors which might suggest variables or obstacles that inhibit the communication process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of decentralization of authority as understood and practiced by managers in the USA tends to be of limited applicability in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the operation of democracy inside trade unions in the U.S. It seeks to explore the need for authority over the membership with the democratic rights of workers. It quantifies that authority vis-a-vis the need to protect individual workers against the arbitrary exercise of a union official's power. There are various means to test the democratic conduct of leaders and members, but two should be mentioned, the forces for and against union democracy. Democratic ideals inside the union can also be examined with respect to admissions, disciplinary actions and the formulation of policies.