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This paper addresses the question: Can the frameworks of analysis of criminology and criminal justice help us to better understand the nature and sources of terrorism and interventions that can serve to remove its causes? The motivation for this question is the prospect that we may be able to prevent terrorism and respond to it most effectively when we understand what it means, what are its roots -- why people choose to engage in acts of terrorism in the first place -- and how we can protect from harm the targets that are susceptible to attack. The paper examines analytic frameworks designed to give a balanced presentation of critical perspectives on all significant sides of major issues of contention -- and often contentiousness -- including the role of religion, balancing security with rights to privacy and liberty, and the role of media and politics in feeding the fear that gives terrorism traction in the first place. The paper reviews what criminologists have contributed to date, and how they might contribute fruitfully in the future. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Mathias Reimann's (2004) useful justification for a new basic course for law students, this paper provides a discussion of an approach to new basic course in international criminal justice for students drawn from disciplines such as law, history, sociology, political science and criminology. This paper argues that the nascent ICC and the jurisprudential developments of the international tribunals suggest the emergence of a discrete international legal order. To appreciate the nature of this new order, it may be useful to practically examine international criminal justice through a variety of themes including: Historical Context, Psychology of International Crimes, Jurisdiction, Individual Responsibility and Defences, Substantive and Procedural Legal Developments, the Problem of Selectivity and the Future of International Criminal Law. This paper is organized to consider key principles, pedagogy and practical challenges and includes study questions for each theme with a view to assist future international criminal justice coursework. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that poverty and inequality increase the likelihood of terrorist incidents in a country. By the guidance of the researches in criminal justice field on poverty, inequality and crime relationship this study builds a path to examine terrorism issue. To be able to do this the study uses social disorganization theory (Shaw & McKay, 1942), anomie theory (Merton, 1938) and Marxist theory (Bonger, 1916) which have been base for explaining poverty, inequality and crime relationship. This study answers the research question of "Does income inequality, poverty level, education level, unemployment level increase the likelihood of terrorist incidents in cities of Turkey?" This empirical study uses secondary data analysis, data for the variables of socioeconomic indicators gathered from the databases of national statistics bureau of Turkey and terrorism incidents data gathered from databases of Turkish National police. Logistic regression will be utilized as statistical method for this study to be able to look at the likelihood of terrorist incidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Democratizing policing must be viewed as part of a larger democratization process in transitional and developing societies. This larger process includes socioeconomic development, reducing ethnic and other forms of conflict, building social capital and other forms of citizen capacity, and integrating human rights and participatory equity in all efforts. This cannot be successful without women playing an equal role with men in all of these efforts, including the establishment and implementation of democratic policing strategies. In this paper the author makes the case for gender equity in participation in democratic policing, assesses the obstacles to participation in democratic policing for women and other marginalized groups, and offers ideas for increasing and enhancing the contribution of women and other marginalized groups in the process. When formulating policy, academics, policy makers, NGOs, and other activists should take into account how policing and crime in general are interrelated with patriarchy, ethnic conflict, socioeconomic development, and democratic institution building. The obstacles to female participation in democratic policing are many and are rooted in the varied patriarchal structures of these societies. Some of these obstacles that need to be overcome include current low levels of female participation in decision-making and the distinct harms women disproportionately suffer from in the areas of crime (domestic violence, rape, etc.), ethnic conflict, employment, education, and health, to name a few. However, as members of a marginalized group, women should share their experiences and knowledge so that effective and equitable forms of democratic policing can be devised and implemented. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides information on the 77th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology (ASC), which will take place at the Atlanta Marriott Marquis in Georgia on November 16-19, 2022.

Literature on the phenomenon of urban delinquency has linked plausible explanations for its causation to characteristics found in criminological theories such as anti-social behavior, social disorganization, differential association, rational choice, and general strain. However, there is an emerging sociological perspective referred to as "oppositional culture," that also provides a plausible explanation for the existence and causation of urban delinquency. Through an analysis of crime, unemployment, and poverty data, this paper examines the development of the urban "oppositional culture," its delinquency label, and what impact it has on policing practices and policy in urban communities. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the extent to which violence on the street can be explained by rational factors associated with the successful commission of the offence or social factors related to street culture. The study is based on qualitative interviews with 55 violent street offenders who were serving sentences for street robbery and assault in six prisons in the UK. The findings identified four main explanations for street violence: (1) successful offence enactment, (2) buzz and excitement, (3) status and honour, and (4) informal justice. The implications of the findings are discussed in the context of cultural criminology and research on street culture. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the contribution of community factors to the juvenile violent crime drop that began in 1993. Using a sample of 134 counties, we employ change-score analysis to test the relationships between changes in four categories of community influences and juvenile violent crime trends during the 1990's. The categories include demography, poverty and poor families, community capacity, and illegitimate economic opportunities. We found that community capacity changes were the most strongly related to juvenile violence trends, although different aspects of community capacity were influential during the early and late years of the drop. Poverty concentration appears to have played a role during the latter years. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines linkages between differential oppression theory and developmental criminological explanations of violent criminal behavior. Violent offenders rarely emerge only in adulthood and then go on to commit crime. More realistic is that their pathology is the product of nature and nurture interacting over the developmental stages of life. The link between antisocial behaviors occurring in different life stages is well developed in the developmental literature. What has not been closely examined is how the process of moving from problem child to adult violent offender reflects childhoods in which oppressive behaviors by parents profoundly influences how children experience the stages in their development. When parents treat their children as lesser beings or possessions, they demean their humanity and set them on a path of maladaptive development. While many children adapt to their oppression by passive acceptance, many others respond with more problematic adaptations, including the exercise of illegitimate coercive power, manipulation of their peers, or retaliation. More frequent and severe oppressive acts by adults thus produce troubled youth who have significantly greater likelihoods of becoming predatory violent adult offenders. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our knowledge of offense patterns over the life-course has increased sharply in recent years. There are now detailed datasets following young people to adulthood, as well as statistical methods created to do justice to these datasets. However, women and girls have largely been absent from this burst of knowledge. Most studies include only boys and men, and even when girls and women are included, their numbers are often too small for detailed analysis. In addition, the length of followup history is usually short, to age 40 at the oldest. This may confound analysis by gender. For example, if the life-course pattern of some women began in their 30s and ended in their 60s, we would need to follow them through their sixties in order to describe accurately their life-span trajectory. Fortunately, there exists a dataset with a large number of women and men that follows people to age 80, the Criminal Career and Life-course Study (CCLS). This paper presents analysis of life-course offending patterns of 424 girls and women, compared to 4191 boys and men, in the CCLS. Sampled from all 1977 CJ contacts in the Netherlands and followed prospectively from 1977 to 2003 and retrospectively to their initial CJ contact, the CCLS includes data on each CJ contact from age 12 through age 72 (given age in 1977), as well as basic data on social characteristics over time. We describe patterns of onset, frequency and offense type changes over the lifespan, career duration, and desistance. We then discuss implications of these findings for developmental and life-course theory. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis research attempts to develop a criminology of the Rwandan genocide. One paradoxical feature of the genocide was the large-scale mobilization of perpetrators who had no previous record of violent behavior, and who frequently showed no signs of remorse after the genocide ended. The pilot phase of the Gacaca court initiative estimated there will be over 700,000 trials in a county of 8 million people. How were such a large number of people mobilized? Several aspects of colonialism prove relevant here: administrative closure and the institution of communal work; ethnic closure and the transformation of integrated lineages into stratified ethnicities under colonial rule and, finally, the amnesty laws that traditionally had been declared after previous widespread ethnic massacres. The research suggests that advances in a criminological theory of genocide lie in the reconciliation of our understanding of mechanisms of violence threshold reduction with a renewed understanding of political criminality. The paper also examines the role of colonial (Belgium) and post-colonial (France) powers in providing material and ideological support for genocide. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, we are witnessing an important technological development in the way risk analyses are performed. Risk assessments are increasingly carried out through algorithm-based big-data analysis (supported by machine learning). It is argued that this method introduces a new frontier of accuracy, to the extent that it may even eliminate all forms of bias. This development completes a major epistemological transition. If individual-based theories of crime assumed a pathological self, and neoclassical theories assumed a rational self, big-data analysis brings about an algorithmic self. The old types of self are abandoned; consciousness, reason and clinical diagnoses are replaced with a type of performative knowledge that is a-theoretical, predictive, and non-reflexive. The proposed paper analyzes the epistemological evolution of the effectiveness movement in crime control. It is based on an extensive survey of the main scientific outlets in criminology and criminal justice studies, and on interviews with researchers who are currently working on developing big-data algorithms for risk assessment. The paper considers the macro effects that stem from the reciprocal interaction between knowledge production and policy making. Overall, it seeks to shed light on the question, are we entering a post-humanist era in crime control? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines some of the harm caused by poverty in both developing and industrialised countries. It will demonstrate that poverty is currently the world's largest source of social harm; it causes more death, disease, suffering and misery than other social phenomena. The paper will question the omission of the study of this harm from criminology. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mentally ill individuals cycle through the criminal justice system at great financial and human cost. Conditions in custody are often worse for this group and the transition back to the community tends to be particularly difficult. Many recidivate and are soon back in jail. A growing body of evidence suggests that treatment based alternatives to jail can offer the kind of support that those suffering from mental illness need to stabilize their condition and avoid repeated re-arrests. However, identifying mental illness via criminal courts is challenging and, even when problems are recognized, there are barriers to providing non-custodial options. In 2002, the Center for Alternative Sentencing and Employment Services (CASES), a non-profit organization based in New York City, established the EXIT program; a jail alternative for mentally ill individuals arrested for non-violent misdemeanors. This paper will present findings from the EXIT program evaluation, describing some of the challenges that the program faced. We will discuss those features of courts which tend to hamper the identification of mental illness and suggest best practices for court based alternative to custody programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theorizing the "new punitiveness" within the context of late-modern societal changes has yielded a robust and significant body of work. Understandably the bulk of its attention has targeted the growth in incarceration. This paper attempts to carve out a more visible and empirically substantiated place for the trend toward punitive policing. The organizing concept "late-modern militarism" is used to make theoretical sense of the multi-faceted yet certain trend toward increasingly punitive domestic and foreign law enforcement. Empirical indicators used to analyze these trends include the blurring distinctions between war / crime fighting and military / police, the rise in popularity of zero-tolerance and SWAT-based strategies, and the replacement of "homeland security" discourse and funding with that of "community policing." ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fundamental problem in illicit drug research is that relatively little is known about the actual weights of illegal retail units, and about how prices are managed within different markets. Most data comes from police/DEA datasets. Behavioral scientists have rarely studied actual retail purchases. This pilot study carefully weighed retail purchases by a variety of marijuana purchasers. During an ethnographic study of Blunts/marijuana in NYC, staff recruited active marijuana users from a variety of ethnicities, genders, SES backgrounds, and communities in NYC. Recruitment efforts included different neighborhoods and retail sales modes in public settings (streets, parks, stores, etc.) and from private locales (bars, apartments, dorms, offices, etc.). While initial access was occasionally challenging, rich ethnographic data delineates how a variety of marijuana users from different settings and SES backgrounds were recruited. A hundred marijuana users provided a recent marijuana purchase for the ethnographer to weigh, and provided additional information about the price paid, described the "retail unit," the type of retail distributors purchased from, the perceived quality of the product, locale of the purchase, and the purchaser's demographics. Experienced ethnographers provided a more objective assessment of marijuana quality. Surprisingly, marijuana users were eager to participate in this market research and to know how much their marijuana purchases weighed. Future research with larger samples of marijuana retail units is needed. Note: This Bardhi paper should precede the Sifaneck et al paper in Panel organizing. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the length of prison terms during the last two decades of the twentieth century. Conventional techniques are attractive but can be misleading. For example, declines in the number of murders and convictions for murder could bias upwards estimates of time served and create spurious trends when using some of the current ways to estimate time spent inside prison. The analysis includes comparing several different indicators such as stock-flow ratios using admissions and releases, mean/median of the release cohort, period life-table estimates, and variable-r life table estimates using duration-specific release rates. Each measure is estimated for the following years: 1986, 1988, 1991, 1994, and 1997. Additionally, the analysis simulate the prison population under various conditions, e.g. entrances growing/decreasing and length of time served decreasing/increasing after attaining the steady state. By performing these tasks, the paper assesses the strengths and weaknesses of each measure, additionally informing the appropriateness of each measure given the current and past history of the incarcerated population. In addition I propose new indicators to enhance the problems that occur due to the influence of tempo and quantum. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will discuss the various analytic strategies employed to test hypotheses about the impact of drug court on drug-involved offenders. First, the sampling strategy used to identify a stratified sample of drug courts across three domains (legal and clinical eligibility, program intensity and sanction severity) will be discussed. Next, the paper will describe the development of individual and court-level indices across a range of domains (including client supervision and treatment, legal pressure, treatment motivation, legitimacy of legal authority, procedural justice and measures of physical and emotion health), and describe key dependent variables. Finally, the paper will describe the HLM framework that will be used to isolate and detect program effects to inform: 1) whether drug court participants have better outcomes than drug-involved offenders receiving business as usual processing and 2) what characteristics of drug court participants are associated with better outcomes. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the development of state theory in the sociology of punishment and its implications for research. Recently, scholars have turned their attention towards the role of politics, particularly contentious racial politics, and the retrenchment of social welfare as a way to explain how and why America has come to rely heavily on mass incarceration. Despite the common focus on political factors, scholars have used wide ranging, inconsistent, and sometimes outdated views of the state and political institutions, leading to some questionable findings. The state has been presented as a black box, a mere reflection of already existing social relations, an instrument of class control, a mode of repression or management. Instead, I suggest we conceptualize the state as a set of mutual obligations between rulers and ruled. It is a set of rules, institutions, and actors invested with authority and responsibility and maintains near control over legitimate forms of violence within a specified territory. The state is both an institution and an actor subject to and an agent of changing historical conditions. It is the dynamic interaction between the state and social groups in civil society that shapes, in part, not only punishment but the character and meaning of social order in a particular society. With this conceptualization, the paper integrates insights from the governance of crime literature and political sociology. By doing so, it hopes to contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of the state and its effects on punishment in the production and reproduction of social order. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminologists widely acknowledge an age-crime curve: Criminal offending onset peaks between ages 8-14, prevalence peaks between ages 15-19, and desistance peaks between ages 20-29 (for a review, see Farrington, 2003). There is less agreement, however, on the explanation for these patterns. This paper elaborates Akers and Lee's (1999) supposition that variables specified in social learning theory can account for the relationship between age and criminal or deviant behavior, testing derived hypotheses on data from the Racine birth cohort. Giving attention to each of Farrington's 24 key empirical and theoretical developmental and life-course issues, this paper presents the argument that social learning and operant conditioning concepts form the underlying explanation for age differences in crime and deviance. This paper posits that onset, continuance, and desistance of criminal or deviant behavior, manifest in an age-crime curve, are functions of differential association, variable-interval reinforcement, and extinction. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminology has always included age as a variable in crime and deviance and has long been interested in careers in crime and career criminals. Over the past two decades these issues have become encapsulated in life course criminology. The rapidly expanding literature in life course criminology has been spurred in part as a reaction to self-control theorists' argument that there is no explanation for age variations, critiques of longitudinal studies and, in part, by the effort to improve on the way in which we understand issues of age, development, and changes in crime over time. Whatever its genesis, life course criminology has clearly assumed a central place in criminology. By focusing on age variations, careers, and trajectories in criminal and deviant behavior it has done for age what Marxist and conflict approaches have done for class and race and feminist approaches have done for gender. This has been important and worthwhile for criminological studies and research and has spurred efforts at theoretical integration, but has life course criminology introduced any new theory or explanatory variables for crime and deviance that goes beyond extant theory? This question is explored, and the central claim in the paper is that extant general theory, especially social learning theory, is capable of accounting for differences in crime by age and the trajectories and patterns of criminal and deviant behavior over the life course. I do not expect this claim to be controversial because social learning variables and explanations are already common, but often unacknowledged, in life course criminology. The paper is based on and develops further my previous work on this issue. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While sexual abuse is acknowledged as a persistent problem behind bars, the impact on victims and the free community is often underscored. In order to assist correctional facilities in releasing more stable inmates into society, this issue must be properly addressed. This paper examines the unique culture of female prisons and the role it has on sexual abuse, both among inmates and with correctional staff. General problems with collecting sexual assault data are discussed, as well as the difficulties when comparing male and female facilities. This paper ends with a discussion of the implications for future research. While the characteristics of inmates have been explored, other characteristics should be explored so that more accurate predictions of an "at-risk" population can be identified. Attitudinal surveys should be distributed to inmates in order to gauge opinions on homophobia and homosexuality. The value of longitudinal studies is discussed. By exploring the impact sexual abuse has on offenders that are released back to their respective communities, a more in-depth knowledge of issues such as rape trauma syndrome, homosexuality and the cycle of violence can be studied. In order to accomplish these goals, it is necessary to develop qualitative interviews. In order to identify a general profile for victims, questions regarding the total criminal history of offenders must be analyzed. Furthermore, attitudinal questions should be included to capture perspectives on homophobia, homosexuality, and sexual abuse, both while incarcerated and for follow-up periods after release to examine how these attitudes impact the free community. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past few decades, DMC has been a persistent problem for both the Black (and other communities of color) and the criminal justice system. Restorative justice based in a culturally specific framework, Afrocentric theory, could be used to address this issue. This paper explores this approach and critically examines underlying principles needed to address previously unaddressed issues in disproportionate confinement with DMC. The paper argues that this approach could not only deal with this specific issue, but could be used to strengthen communities of color. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses ongoing research on the nature and extent of human trafficking to New York City. The paper presents challenges encountered by law enforcement and service providers working to protect victims of trafficking and increase prosecution of the perpetrators of this hard-to-identify crime that is often defined as modern-day slavery. As local law enforcement officers around the country are increasingly involved in immigration enforcement, the paper also considers the role local police do or could play in identifying victims of human trafficking. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethics is an increasingly popular topic in criminal justice and criminology, from research to curriculum development and pedagogy. However, little research exists on the perceptions criminologists have of the ethicalness of various issues (e.g., death penalty) and dilemmas (e.g., police accepting gratuities). In this paper, we present the results of an exploratory email survey on criminal justice ethics conducted with members of the American Society of Criminology in Spring 2006. Specifically, this paper focuses on the perceptions criminologists have of various criminal justice policies as ethical practices (e.g., sex offender registries, jury consulting, racial profiling, and the Patriot Act) as well as their perceptions of the ethicalness of common academic or faculty practices (e.g., selling complimentary textbooks to book buyers). We discuss various factors that influence these perceptions (e.g., having taught or conducted research in ethics, major field of study). Lastly, we explore the research and pedagogical implications of these findings. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from a recent intensive case study of female responsiveprobation, this paper explores the way the principles of restorativejustice are perceived and operationalized in an intentionally femaleresponsive environment. Specifically, the paper contrasts the consistentvalue placed on staff and girls "being restorative" in their daily interactions with the social and political reality of probation as a function of the court. Implicationsof this inconsistency for the creation of restorative female responsiveprobation environments are also discussed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research paper self-reported data on perceived crime trends, victimization, fear of crime, and perceived efficacy of the criminal justice system collected in Croatia from a representative sample of 1,238 adults during 2003, and from a representative sample of 1,004 adults during 2005 will be presented and compared. Study results will be also compared with data available from other countries. The general aim of these studies was to assess magnitude of the effects of socio-demographic variables, previous victimization, perception of crime problems and their severity, use of crime prevention measures, and satisfaction with effectiveness of social control institutions in predicting personal crime concern, public opinion on national crime trends, and personal safety. In this paper, an overview of the major findings from those studies as well as possible explanations of fear of crime, victimization and perceived effectiveness of social control institutions in a national and cross-national context will be presented. Particular attention will be given to the similarities and differences in results collected over those two years in Croatia, and in similar studies from other countries. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the major explanatory frameworks in contemporary criminological theory, and then delineates levels at which each seeks to explain criminal behavior. It is suggested that all contemporary mono-causal criminological frameworks provide partial explanations of criminality at either macro, intermediate, or micro levels, or simply describe the situation conductive to the commission of criminal acts. The paper proposes a meta-theoretical model that integrates the major theoretical frameworks by assigning them to levels at which each causal explanation can be said to function. The paper explores the ways the various explanations complement each other, and the ways the various levels of explanation interact with each other. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will explore the differences in juvenile delinquency rates in rural and urban areas. After exploring the differences in rates between the two areas, this paper will then examine whether or not the number of youth programs available to children in a community effect delinquency rates. Research has shown that children who participate in structured activities are less likely to participate in delinquent behaviors than those who spend their time in unstructured activities. Before a child can join structured activities they have to be offered in the communities in which the child lives in. The hypothesis for this study is: those communities that have a higher number of youth programs available should have lower delinquency rates since there are more opportunities for the child to get involved in structured activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an abundance of research that documents the structural impediments to post-prison success resulting numerous legal restrictions and economic difficulties. This paper examines the role that religion plays in the re-entry process. Data for this study come from nearly two years of participant observation in a variety of activities with a Prison Fellowship Ministry Aftercare group in Southeastern Wisconsin. These activities include mentorship training, in-prison chapel services and Bible groups, as well as aftercare support groups. The paper focuses on the ways in which participation in prison fellowship activities provides both support and accountability in the re-entry process.~~ ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminologists and social researchers still formulate theoretical forecasts that are unclear as well as generally do not make falsifiable, scientific predictions in their theories, and, when they do so, they have been lacking their ability to effectively and efficiently test them. The purpose of this paper is to attempt to formulate a collective and future repetitive sociological approach to criminality and deviance by developing falsifiable propositions and making small, yet important contributions within critical criminology. Specifically, this paper will critique and evaluate the offenses committed by the senior Pentecostal pastorate from the Radical (Marxist) criminological theory since they also carry on the violations of the human rights and social actions of wrongdoing. However, I will take a holistic sociological approach which includes Durkheimian and Weberian principles so as to take into account of these two perspectives sensitive to men's objective and subjective worlds. Any holistic sociological approach that wishes to explain criminality and deviance must include the thoughts of these grandfathers of sociology. Also, there is a possibility of building links between symbolic interactionism (from Erving Goffman) and the theories of social structure implicit in Marxist, Durkheimian, and Weberian thought. This paper closes by discussing the advantages and weaknesses connected with this holistic sociological approach to crimes committed within Pentecostalism by critiquing and evaluating this perspective based on Bernard's (2001) standards. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will review the history of immigration law and how, especially more recently, immigration has been criminalized. The paper will examine competing frames of why and how immigration should be controlled, especially post 911. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between collective efficacy and the spatial distribution of crime and transportation routes. The paper provides an integration of environmental criminology theories (e.g., crime pattern theory, routine activities theory) with contemporary crime and place theories to understand how the spatial distribution of crime is mediated by access to transport and perceptions of collective efficacy. Survey data was gathered from 2859 residents across 82 Statistical Local Areas in Brisbane, Australia asking questions of perceptions of crime, disorder, collective efficacy, social capital as well as victimization experiences. Residents' addresses from the survey were geocoded and transportation variables (e.g., railway lines, train stations, bus stations) were gathered from a variety of sources. This paper reports the results of a spatial analysis of collective efficacy, neighbourhood disorder, and access to transportation variables. Implications of this study are discussed in relation to environmental criminology and other theories of crime and place. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we will examine changes in underground economic activity since the mid-1990s among low-income African-American drug users in New York City. Published research suggests that the current generation of young adults in New York tends to avoid hard drugs such as crack and heroin and to favor marijuana and alcohol instead. The decline in hard drug use has also been linked to the reduction in crime in New York. We will analyze interview data from two ethnographic studies, one conducted between the mid-1990s and 2002, the other between 2003 and 2006. Preliminary analysis indicates that respondents in the later study tend to be younger and less likely to use crack. They are also less likely to rely on public assistance as a primary source of income. However, they appear to be equally involved in underground economic activity, although they are less likely to be involved in sex-related hustles than were respondents in the earlier study. In this paper we will examine these differences and investigate the extent to which they are related to declining crack use, changes in social welfare policy and increased law enforcement. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will build on a presentation made at the 2005 American Society of Criminology Conference about a method for "unpacking" courtroom decision making. This method enables one to identify whether annual fluctuations and equilibrium shifts in a trial court conviction rate trend (rates are based on cases disposed in the trial court and lower/criminal court) for a given jurisdiction, were due to changes in case volume, policy/practice/law, or average case seriousness. It is grounded in the concept of normed courtroom decision-making and tenets of the resource saturation hypothesis (Fisher and Nagin, 1978). Once effects are isolated, one can begin to examine how decision-making criteria were changed in response to case volume or policy/practice/law effects. This paper examines the extent to which case volume effects on the probability of trial court conviction also affected the probability of prison. It will show how law enforcement strategies that led to sharp increases in drug offenses in the eighties and quality-of-life crime in the mid-nineties affected the probability of trial court conviction and prison in selected New York City counties. It will also show how these case volume effects affected New York State's prison population. Finally, it will demonstrate that the conduct of jurisdictional-specific research is critical to our understanding of how structural factors such as case volume affect decision making and the magnitude of case processing disparities. This analysis uses case-level arrest and disposition data from the New York State Computerized Criminal History System. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper opens by rehearsing some well-known criticisms made of both criminology as a discipline and criminal justice as a set of institutions and processes. The terrain of criminology has largely been defined by states' own concerns - reflected through criminal justice systems - with the crimes and incivilities of the relatively powerless. The mutually reinforcing effect of these narrow fixations has been to maintain existing power relations. The paper then sets out how a 'social harm' perspective differs from a 'crime' one. A harm perspective means considering 'physical', 'financial/economic', 'emotional and psychological' and 'sexual' harms, among other things. The paper concludes by pointing to the various advantages of a harm perspective. These include an enhanced ability to consider the underlying, rather than superficial, causes of various harms, and to develop more appropriate policy responses than are allowed for under a crime perspective. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines at the apparent racial and ethnic disparities in outcomes associated with California's "Three Strikes and You're Out" law. This paper examines the extent to which differences in "strikes" sentences for white, black, and Hispanic defendants can be attributed to discrepancies in the law's application, along with the extent to which racial and ethnic disparities emerge at several separate stages in the criminal justice system prior to sentencing, including arrest, criminal charging, plea bargaining or trial, conviction or acquittal, and the imposition of a sentence of prison, jail, or another alternative. It is necessary to look broadly at the whole California criminal justice system, rather than narrowly at Three Strikes sentencing, as the application of the Three Strikes law is only one step near the end of a long and complex process. The analysis uses a combination of state-level aggregate statistics and individual level data. Aggregate statistics allow for a clear understanding of the extent to which racial and ethnic disparities emerge throughout the California criminal justice system, while individual level data enable rigorous testing of alternatives to a discrimination hypothesis using regression models that include control variables such as specific offense, number of criminal charges, and prior criminal record. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the Internet has been used as more than merely a way to locate and disseminate information; it has found a place as a method of collecting data. A review of the literature on Web-based (or Internet) surveys has found that this method of data collection has been used very sparingly in criminology and criminal justice. A great deal of the literature on Web-based surveys has involved comparing them with traditional mail surveys or e-mail surveys with respect to response rates, recruitment of participants, quality of data, issues related to non-response, and respondent characteristics. This paper addresses the use of a Web-based survey as the sole method of gathering data with a population of professional students. In particular, this paper will address issues related to the recruitment of participants and response rates for a Web-based survey using students from two law schools. Possible methods to increase response rates of Web-based surveys with professional or graduate students, explanations of difficulties with response rates, and the possible future role that web-based surveys can play in data collection for the social sciences (in particular criminology and criminal justice) will also be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of criminological theories focusing on the relationship between religion and crime suggest mechanisms of behavior change that can be utilized in programmatic models. In theory, strong criminal justice prevention programs and intervention models would specify the causal processes that would guide intended outcomes. However, in reality, practice does not always follow from theory. Little systematic knowledge exists regarding faith-based programmatic models in criminal justice regardless of whether the programs are focused on prevention, intervention, or aftercare. This paper presents a conceptual framework designed to elucidate key dimensions and characteristics that are important to faith-based programming and designed to bring about change in behavior and a reduction in crime. The framework is based in findings from the extant literature, and can be used as a tool to guide program development as well as the tracking of goals, activities, objectives, and outcomes. In addition, the framework recognizes the multi-dimensionality of the concepts of religion and spirituality and how programmatic endeavors can be targeted to a variety of outcomes, and whether the outcomes are short-term or long-term. Furthermore, the framework enables articulation of process and end outcomes at multiple levels of change (e.g., individual, community, etc.). The paper will also discuss how the framework is being used to evaluate a faith-based prisoner reentry program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents some initial results of safety audits conducted in and around the University of Winnipegs campus in the late winter of 2005. Structured field observations were carried out by senior undergraduate students under the leadership of a faculty member in the Criminal Justice Studies program. While the ostensible objective of the audit was to highlight areas of concern and make recommendations based on the principles of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED), a secondary objective of the process was to provide students of Criminal Justice Studies with an opportunity for hands on learning. The audit produced a number of concrete recommendations based on CPTED and more general principles derived from situational crime prevention. At the same time, the process also produced less tangible benefits to students as they applied abstract theory to concrete situations. This paper concludes by discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the safety audit process as a tool for both campus safety and criminal justice education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following a steady and seemingly inexorable rise in recorded crime in England and Wales between 1955 and 1992, the last thirteen years has witnessed an almost unprecedented decline in both police recorded crime and estimates of crime from the British Crime Survey. Jock Young referred to the growth in recorded crime during the years of the Keynesian Welfare state in the UK as an aetiological crisis for criminology. The expectation had been that with rising living standards and increased welfare provision crime would fall. Criminologists have become so used to explaining rising crime that they might now face a second aetiological crisis explaining falling crime rates. This paper will examine possible explanations for the drop in England and Wales and discuss the implications for criminological theory. This fall in crime was not unique to England and Wales. Other industrial countries also experienced similar reductions most notably the US but also amongst others Canada, Australia and Spain. This paper will discuss explanations for the fall in crime elsewhere in the light of the discussion of the English and Welsh experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social learning theory, as articulated by Akers, and Gottfredson and Hirschis Self-control theory specify rather different paths to delinquency. Past studies of either theory have tended to explore their respective causal modeling in rather static, cross-sectional contexts. For both theories, few longitudinal tests exist, and fewer still explore both theories using the same subjects. The current paper represents just such a test. Using data collected during the National Evaluation of the Gang Resistance and Education Training program, we use hierarchical linear modeling to estimate the conditional influence of SLT and SCT variables on delinquency trends in a sample of youth. We accomplish this by creating a series of HLM models each of which includes two of four variables derived from SLT and SCT. Through this analytic strategy we estimate several permutations of the model using the various combinations of the time-varying covariates and make comparisons across the parameter estimates. The paper includes the implications of our findings for social learning and self-control theories, both in terms of their theoretical insights into delinquency and for their policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the 2005 National Public Survey on White Collar Crime (a revisiting of the 2000 National Public Survey on White Collar Crime conducted by NW3C), this paper will explore public attitudes and perceptions concerning white collar crime in the present day. Areas of interest include perceived seriousness, public awareness, victim risk behaviors, general experience, and general demographics. This paper will discuss the similarities and the differences between the responses issued for the 2000 survey and the 2005 survey, along with implications for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the problems of true empowerment of citizens in policing. Power is seldom discussed in practice, but empowerment means that people should have power, as capacity for participation and influence. Participation is a fundamental element in democratic theory, and as a principle of democratic policing it means that citizens should participate in policing policy making and deliberations. Community policing and partnership ideology, as the dominant contemporary legitimation of policing, also put emphasis on participation and empowerment. Because crime prevention strategies have changed lately in their contents and aims more towards safety and security policies and politics, it is even more important to discuss power, This paper is based on many years empirical research about community safety partnerships and power analysis within partnerships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many college students are first exposed to criminology and criminal justice topics in introductory sociology courses. In such courses, more often than not, students are required to read an introductory textbook which purports to offer an overview of the issues of crime and deviance. Yet while these textbooks intentionally vary in style and theoretical emphasis, they often exhibit many similarities. Inevitably, a general message about crime is being relayed to students. Because of their broad influence, social scientists interested in criminal justice should consider whether these resources offer an accurate and current presentation of criminological topics. With this aim, this paper provides a comparative analysis of how current introductory sociology textbooks present issues related to crime. While not designed as an exhaustive study of all sociology textbooks, nor a ranking system for determining the best textbook on the market," this analysis highlights the common themes permeating the majority of textbooks in use today. It also explores the basic biases, gaps, and errors that exist within such learning resources. Finally, this paper offers suggestions for how we can improve our basic coverage of this topic, and the implications that these issues have on our discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper will discuss three types of borderline criminals: salespersons whose practices border on fraud. It will discuss television coin salespersons, a toy train company, and television evangelists. The paper will discuss their practices and the extent of the damages (excess profits) they cause. The paper will conclude with a discussion of social and cultural factors that contribute to such practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paucity of research on female police officers was a big motivating factor to conduct a survey of over 2,000 randomly selected female police officers across the United States in 2003-2004. A general overview of findings has already been presented at another conference in 2004 but the focus of this paper is specifically the issue of the rural-versus-urban perspective on the data. Within that perspective, different variables will be examined like for example education, harassment, and the ability to handle distraught citizens. The paper offers a unique insight into a severely underresearched area of criminology and thus contributes significantly to our understanding of not only women in policing but also of female police in different kinds of environments in America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the operational realities of the police executive linkagesbeyond the official dictates of the law and the desired position expressed in ideological discourses on police independence. Paper draws primarily on historical and criminological literature and research, and public inquiries. The central argument of this paper is that, while there may be a somewhat clear-cut division between the policy versus the operational control of the police by the State in law and in rhetoric, the reality is quite different. The relationship between the State and the police is a dynamic relationship that changes to reflect the nature of the policing that is being carried-out, the political interests of the party in power, and to some extent the personalities of the key players within both the police services and in politics at a specific period in time. This research indicates that looking for the smoking guni.e. the memo or document that in writing acknowledges a directive from the executive to the policesidesteps the reality of the on-going partnerships between politics and policing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, criminologists have recognized the nested nature of their data and have begun to make substantial use of multilevel models (i.e., hierarchical models). Unfortunately, typical multilevel models seem to neglect the causal structure of their measures. Therefore, the purpose of the present paper is to extend the use of multilevel models by providing an introduction to multilevel structural equation model (MSEM), which can rectify this problem. This paper will provide important insights into the advantages and developments of MSEM. Importantly, this paper will pay special attention to identification and power issues in MSEM. These issues will be discussed and illustrated using secondary and simulated data. Finally, this paper will promote the use of MSEM and make valuable identification and power suggestions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research paper focuses on the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies and spatial regressive modeling techniques, analyzing data at a variety of different geographic aggregations, to examine the impact of the Modifiable Areal Unit Problems (MAUP) (Openshaw and Taylor, 1979) impact on the results of criminological research. In this paper, we extend the work of Miethe and colleagues both conceptually and methodologically. Our goals have been to think critically about how GIS can be used in crime research, to stretch the GIS technology and revise the methodologies we currently use in crime analysis. We develop a series of unique contextual level data set incorporating information from crime location and census data in Dallas, TX. We demonstrate the need for caution when assuming pure "value added" through GIS data integration. Rather, we provide an application that explicitly incorporates spatial structure, while examining the MAUPs impact on a variety of commonly used independent variables in the criminological literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]