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Providing equitable access to greenspace requires innovative strategies in urban areas where land is scarce and expensive. One potential solution is to make golf courses, which are often exclusive and require daily or annual membership fees, more accessible to the general public. The impact of urban golf courses on greenspace access has yet to be investigated systematically, however. Here we quantify (1) the number and area of golf courses within all major urban areas in the conterminous United States, and (2) the number and demographics of people that would benefit from better access to them. We identify 6,962 urban golf courses that cover 3,102 km2 urban land, equivalent to ∼29 percent of all urban greenspace. We find that 3.4 percent of the U.S. urban population (equivalent to nearly 6 million people) live less than 1 km from a golf course but more than 1 km from public greenspace. Policies that make golf courses more available to the general public would substantially improve greenspace access, and associated health benefits, for millions of Americans. In most cities, however, it is wealthy, White neighborhoods that would benefit most from better access to golf courses, not the lower socioeconomic, ethno-racial minority communities that are most lacking in greenspace access. Making golf courses more accessible to the general public should therefore be considered just one component of a more diverse set of strategies to improve access to greenspace in U.S. cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To categorize injury types and occurrence among athletes participating in the Special Olympics (SO). Design: Retrospective cross-sectional cohort study. Setting: 2018 SO USA Games. Participants: Athletes participating in 14 sports at the 2018 SO USA Games (n = 2251). Independent Variables: Individual and team sports. Main Outcome Measures: Percentage of athletes injured per individual sport, percentage of injury type by sport, rate of injuries per 1000 exposures, and number of injuries per game in team sports. Results: In individual sports, the percentage of athletes injured ranged from 38.5% in gymnastics to 12.9% in golf. Musculoskeletal (MSK) injuries occurred in 53.3% of gymnastics injuries and 58.6% of tennis injuries. For stand-up paddleboard, most injuries were non-MSK (66.7%). The highest rate of MSK injuries occurred in gymnastics (25.6/1000 exposures), whereas the highest rates of non-MSK injuries (95.2/1000 exposures) and minor injuries (47.6/1000 exposures) were among stand-up paddleboard athletes. In team sports, the highest number of injuries per game occurred in softball (1.9 per game). Conclusions: A high percentage of injuries occurred at the 2018 SO USA Games. The high rate of non-MSK injuries is unique to the SO and should be considered when planning medical coverage for future events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates the differences between high- and low-handicap golf players considering risk-taking behavior and aggression. Also, the existing correlations between golf players' sports skills, height (inches), weight (lbs), risk-taking behavior and aggression were analyzed. 36 performance golf players from the United States took part in the research (Mage = 18.94). For assessing risk-taking behavior The English adaptation of the Makarowski's Stimulating and Instrumental Risk Questionnaire was used, while aggression was measured through the English adaptation of the Makarowski's Aggression Questionnaire. It was found that low-handicap golf players have higher results for Goahead scale, a better sports ability is linked to a heavier weight (only in male athletes), while in female golf players a lower score for stimulating risk is associated to a higher value for instrumental risk (requires rational thinking). Both male and female golf players obtained a significant lower score for foul play, compared to the norms. Also, the results of female golf players were significantly lower for assertiveness, stimulating risk and higher in the case of instrumental risk. Gender differences were presented, starting from the dependent variables investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need to reduce inputs on golf course putting greens. In the north‐central United States, the use of alternative species, like fine fescues (Festuca spp.), could be part of a solution, but information is needed on management and cultivar choices. Our objectives were twofold: (a) to compare performance of fine fescues (strong creeping red [Festuca rubra L. ssp. rubra Gaudin, STF], slender creeping red [Festuca rubra L. ssp. littoralis (G. Mey.) Auquier, SLF], Chewings [Festuca rubra L. ssp. commutata Gaudin, CHF], and hard fescue [Festuca brevipila Tracey, HDF]) to bentgrasses (creeping bentgrass [Agrostis stolonifera L., CRB], and colonial bentgrass [Agrostis capillaris L., CLB]) managed as low‐input greens treated with 0, 48.9, 97.7, or 195.3 kg N ha−1 yr−1 during 2017–2018; and (b) to evaluate multiple fine fescue cultivars for multiyear performance when maintained as low‐input greens in St. Paul, MN. In 2017, CHF and SLF maintained the highest quality of the fine fescues and maintained higher quality at low N compared with both bentgrasses, primarily due to less dollar spot (Clarireedia spp.). During 2018, fine fescue responses to N were similar to those in 2017, but summer patch (Magnaporthe spp.) disease resulted in decline of some taxa. In the cultivar study, top‐performing cultivars were CHF, most of which performed similarly. However, SLF and STF cultivars performed more variably. Chewings fescue and SLF maintained with 48.9–97.7 kg N ha−1 yr−1 may be alternatives to CRB for low‐input greens in the north‐central United States, primarily due to reduced dollar spot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Annual bluegrass (ABG, Poa annua L.) is often considered an undesirable species on golf courses in many regions of the United States. However, the long‐term effect of the cultural and chemical management practices of ABG control is not sufficiently investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the long‐term effect of N, Fe sulfate, and plant growth regulators (PGRs) on ABG populations in a creeping bentgrass (CBG, Agrostis stolonifera L.) golf green. The study was established on a mixed stand of 'L‐93′ CBG (∼75%) and ABG (∼25%) and managed as a putting green in University Park, PA, from 2012 to 2018. Treatments included ammonium sulfate (24 and 147 kg ha−1 yr−1), Fe sulfate (0, 12, or 49 kg FeSO4 ha−1 application−1), and the PGRs trinexapac‐ethyl (TE, 0.043 kg a.i. ha−1 application−1), flurprimidol (FL, 0.28 kg a.i. ha−1 application−1) and a nontreated control. Treatments were initiated in late April or early May each year and reapplied where required every 3 wk for nine applications annually. In general, ABG populations were lowest under lower N rates and with applications of FL. The long‐term effect of FeSO4 was minimal. In the first year of this study (2012), turfgrass quality was reduced, but quality levels generally increased in subsequent years. Although low N and FL may reduce ABG and high N and TE may increase ABG, seasonal variations in environmental conditions may reduce the efficacy of these treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Golf is described as elitist, racist, and sexist. Recently it has become clear that golf is also able-bodiest. Casey Martin, a young, upper class, white, male golfer with a physical disability, was featured in the media for challenging the Professional Golf Association (PGA) rules prohibiting use of a golf cart during tournament play. Drawing on Connell's (1987) construct of hegemonic masculinity and Wendell's (1996) notion of the "paradigm citizen" (p. 41), we examine if and how hegemonic masculinity and the paradigm citizen/golfer are reinforced, maintained, and challenged within four issues of major golf magazines and a special golfing issue of Sports Illustrated published around the time of the trial. We find that golfers with disabilities are absent from advertisements and photographs and given minimal attention in articles. Proportions of golfers who are older and women golfers, while generally consistent with subscriber proportions, were well under U.S. golfer population percentages. Data suggest that golf magazines continue to maintain and reinforce hegemonic masculinity and the paradigm citizen/golfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are 2.9 million junior golfers aged 6-17 today in the United States. Although participation continues to increase, researchers have paid little attention to investigating clothing needs for this population. Polyester blends outnumber cotton blends for many forms of active wear even though cotton remains consumers' number one choice of fabric, and junior golf apparel is no exception. Therefore, the goals of this study, funded by Cotton Incorporated, were to (a) identify the clothing needs of junior girls who play golf and (b) support the design and development of prototypes using comfortable cotton fabrics incorporating textile design by digitally designing cotton prints. A group of nine female junior golfers, ranging in age from 13 to 17, was recruited for the focus group interview. Design criteria identified from the interview were translated into garment attributes to develop prototypes that meet the needs and wants of female junior golfers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to give voice to a small group of African American male and female aspiring professional golfers in efforts to illuminate the challenges they face in pursuing professional playing careers in the United States (U.S.). Utilizing a basic interpretive qualitative research design (Merriam 2002), semi-structured interviews with eight African American male and one African American female golfers who were pursuing professional playing careers on the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) and Ladies Professional Golfers Association (LPGA) Tours, respectively, were conducted. Findings from our analysis of their narratives suggest the following major challenges made their pursuit of a professional playing career difficult: (a) these golfers lacked the social networks/connections and financial resources, and (b) they were not taken seriously or viewed by powerful stakeholders in golf as legitimate golfers. Contributions to the literature and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on the cultural and structural contours of the global sport of golf, this analysis features the rhetorical power of U.S. Ladies Professional Golf Association (USLPGA) commissioners in narrativizing this “American” global tour. Selected mediated rhetoric of each of these commissioners is read within a post-title 9/11 context, attending to Winant’s notion of “new imperialism” as a process of linking gender and race in a sporting space of globalization. This post-title 9/11 reading illuminates the manner in which USLPGA leadership espouses an elite, global identity and simultaneously acts to contain the very “global” difference it claims to produce. The analysis is also instructive for thinking about the cultural and rhetorical power of commissioners in locating the USLPGA in a set of discourses about globalization, nationalism, and difference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the diffusion of innovation framework, this study identified three distinct segments of golf product consumers using a cluster analysis and explored potential differences between segments on communication behaviours related to innovativeness. Results indicate that the members of each cluster show varying degrees of innovativeness for new golf products. Each cluster also was further distinguished based upon communication behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A player’s ability to score low is critical to the tournament outcome in golf. The relationships of round scores to fairways hit in regulation or striking distance on two holes per round have been investigated before with some disagreement. The purpose is therefore to examine the relationships of par-4 and par-5 hole scores to tee shot functional accuracy and distance, measured as lie of the ball and penalty, and striking distance or distance to the pin for the second shot. Such information is possible to collect without interviewing players. The best US Professional Golfers’ Association Tour players’ statistics during a season are used, provided by the Professional Golfers’ Association Tour and ShotLink. Distance was measured with laser equipment. The results include significant (P < 0.05) correlations between score and striking distance or distance to pin, when hitting rough but not fairway on par-4s and when hitting fairway and rough on par-5s. It is therefore relevant, for performance, to consider the type of fairway miss as well as the striking distance in relation to the par and length of the hole. The findings can be considered when making gap and needs profiles, and when making tactical decisions for tee shots on different types of holes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This essay considers the case of the Fijian-born golfer Vijay Singh. In reviewing the reception of Singh in the American media, several overlapping tropes arise in how Singh has been read: as silent, as prickly and isolated, as unappreciative of the opportunities he has been given, and as a mindless workhorse. I use these tropes to place him within the history of American sport, and I explore his ambivalent use of silence as a way of situating him within Asian America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the diffusion of disc golf across the continental U.S. We provide a descriptive analysis of the spatial distribution of the sport beginning with its formal inception in 1975 through 2010. We investigate the role of common macro-level factors in determining the diffusion of sports facilities, such as population and land availability. We also consider the role of micro-level factors in influencing the diffusion of disc golf at the individual level. Our results demonstrate that disc golf has diffused rapidly and thoroughly throughout the U.S. Several disc golf regions have developed, including the upper Midwest, the mid-Atlantic I-95 corridor, and the Pacific Coast. Population has been an important determinant of diffusion patterns, with contagious diffusion evident at the local level. Disc golf facilities can be found in demographically diverse communities, however the overwhelming majority of disc golfers are white, creating an unintentional cultural barrier. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The golf industry in Portugal is facing substantial difficulties in keeping courses running—as is happening in the United States, for example—because the number of golf tourists and federate players has drastically decreased in recent years; from 17,642 players in 2005 to 14,679 in 2012 (European Golf Association, n.d.). Golf marketers and course owners have realized that this sector needs to undergo considerable changes to attract more clients to the game. Among potential clients, women are presently viewed as a segment that deserves attention since they can make a difference to the economy of the sector, which desperately needs to be enhanced. Nowadays, women tend to outlive men; they are more aware of the benefits of open-air activities and are willing to play, so golf could be a lifelong sport for them. Nevertheless, at present they only account for roughly 18% of golf players in Portugal (European Golf Association, n.d.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimated the lumbar spinal loads at the L4–L5 level and evaluated electromyographic (EMG) activity of right and left rectus abdominis, external and internal obliques, erector spinae, and latissimus dorsi muscles during a golf swing. Four super VHS camcorders and two force plates were used to obtain three-dimensional (3D) kinematics and kinetics of golf swings performed by five male collegiate golfers. Average EMG levels for different phases of golf swing were determined. An EMG-assisted optimization model was applied to compute the contact forces acting on the L4–L5. The results revealed a mean peak compressive load of over six times the body weight (BW) during the downswing and mean peak anterior and medial shear loads approaching 1.6 and 0.6 BW during the follow-through phases. The peak compressive load estimated in this study was high, but less than the corresponding value (over 8 BW) reported by a previous study. Average EMG levels of different muscles were the highest in the acceleration and follow-through phases, suggesting a likely link between co-contractions of paraspinal muscles and lumbar spinal loads. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Swing kinematic and ground reaction force data from 308 golfers were analysed to identify the variables important to driving ball velocity. Regression models were applied at four selected events in the swing. The models accounted for 44-74% of variance in ball velocity. Based on the regression analyses, upper torso-pelvis separation (the X-Factor), delayed release (i.e. the initiation of movement) of the arms and wrists, trunk forward and lateral tilting, and weight-shifting during the swing were significantly related to ball velocity. Our results also verify several general coaching ideas that were considered important to increased ball velocity. The results of this study may serve as both skill and strength training guidelines for golfers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The connection between golf, businesspeople, and notions of class is common-place in the mass media, but a topic not yet explored in the social sciences. This article seeks to historically and sociologically trace back the association between business and golf by looking at the history of this sport in three nations: Scotland, England, and the United States. I explore the creation of rules of etiquette, the introduction of the handicap, and the socioeconomic composition of golf clubs throughout the nineteenth and early-20th century. In theoretical terms, the article advances Pierre Bourdieu's notion of symbolic capital and Michel Foucault's idea of technologies of the self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to comprehensively evaluate available golf course water quality data and assess the extent of impacts, as determined by comparisons with toxicologic and ecologic reference points. Most water quality monitoring studies for pesticides have focused on agriculture and often the legacy chemicals. There has been increased focus on turf pesticides since the early 1990s, due to the intense public scrutiny proposed golf courses receive during the local permitting process, as well as pesticide registration evaluations by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Results from permit-driven studies are frequently not published and knowledge about them is usually not widespread. Forty-four studies involving 80 courses from a 20-year period passed our quality control and other review criteria. A total of 38,827 data entries (where one analysis for one substance in one sample equals a data entry) from pesticide, pesticide metabolite, total phosphorus, and nitrate analyses of surface water and groundwater were evaluated. Analytes included 161 turf-related pesticides and pesticide metabolites. Widespread and/or repeated water quality impacts by golf courses had not occurred at the sites studied, although concerns are raised herein about phosphorus. Individual pesticide database entries that exceed toxicity reference points for groundwater and surface water are 0.15 and 0.56%, respectively. These percentages would be higher if they could be expressed in terms of samples collected rather than chemicals analyzed. The maximum contaminant level ([MCL]; 10 mg/L) for nitrate-nitrogen was exceeded in 16/1,683 (0.95%) of the groundwater samples. There were 1,236 exceedances of the total phosphorus ecoregional criteria in five ecoregions for 1,429 (86.5%) data entries. (This comparison is conservative because many of the results in the database are derived from storm flow events.) Thus, phosphorus appears to present the greatest water quality problem in these studies. Pesticides detected in wells had longer soil metabolism half-lives (49 d) compared with those not detected (22 d), although the means were not significantly different. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2010;29:1224–1236. © 2010 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the role of newspaper coverage of the 1913 U.S. Open golf tournament in the establishment of that sport in the U.S. During this tournament amateur golfer Francis Ouimet was raised to celebrity status because of his victory. The author studies expressions of nationalism and invocations of heroism in the media reports announcing Ouimet's victory over English golfer Harry Vardon. The media coverage of this tournament by newspapers including the "New York Tribune," "The Boston Daily Globe," and "The Nashville Banner" is analysed to understand how the tournament was viewed in the U.S.

Twenty-five million Americans play golf on the nation's 16,000 courses each year. These golf courses constitute a significant national landscape feature. Since 1878, when the game arrived in the United States, golf has filtered down the urban, economic, and social hierarchies to become accepted by and accessible to most Americans. During the ensuing thirteen decades the number, location, and layout of the nation's golf courses have responded to many of the same driving forces that impacted the nation, including decentralization, growth of the middle class, war, economic depression, suburbanization, and the increasing role of the federal government. Four epochs of golf-course growth and diffusion show the growing acceptance of the sport and depict where courses were most likely to be constructed as a result of the prevailing forces of each epoch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hospitality and tourism industry accounts for nearly 22 percent of the large U.S. golf economy. Of all golf-related trips, golf vacation trips represent the largest category. Golf vacation packages are an important promotional tool used by marketers to attract more golfers to a particular destination, especially during the off-peak seasons (i.e. non-summer seasons). Thirty in-depth, personal interviews were conducted among male golfers along the Alabama Gulf Coast, primarily to identify important factors associated with the golf vacation pack- age-purchase decision. The findings indicate that vacationing golfers seek to reduce the inherent risks associated with their golf vacation purchase by initially relying heavily on word-of-mouth communications and later on their own experiences. Important factors in selecting (or not selecting) a golf vacation package include: weather; golf course avail-ability/accessibility; perceived value; restaurants and nightlife; time constraints. The theoretical framework involves service convenience, which is seen as an important overriding consideration in the purchase decision. Related hypotheses are developed. Managerial implications and possible directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the spatial accessibility of African Americans to golf as an example of continued social injustice. Because of its developmental diversity, demographic diversity, and rich golf history, North Carolina is chosen to examine the relationship between the spatial distributions of golf courses and African Americans. Most previous analyses of golf and ethnicity have focused on other dimensions of inaccessibility and have ignored the spatial dimension. Despite the impression that is left by Tiger Woods' success and notoriety, African Americans remain disproportionately inaccessible to golf An index of net accessibility, controlling for market size, indicates that census tracts with high percentages of African-American population also are unexpectedly underserved with golf The correlation between net access and percent black is -.56. Inaccessibility is illustrated in rural, metropolitan, elite golf resort, and coastal geographic settings. This case study illustrates the outcomes of profound power relations and tensions that are played out on carefully crafted islands of privilege that signify humanity's power over nature and its willingness to exclude portions of itself from the fruits of that power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the significant contribution of national, mass circulation magazines on the growth of golf in the U.S. during the 1920s. Role of magazines in assessing public attitudes and views; Discussion on the relationship between magazines and their readers; Factors that led to the growth of golf and other sports; Effect of how media frames an issue on the perception of the public; Analysis of frames that contributed to the growth of golf.

This article focuses on the benefits of golf for individuals with disabilities. Golf has been shown to be an effective rehabilitative tool, and it has provided an opportunity for individuals to become involved again in their communities. As more individuals with disabilities have become interested in playing, the topic of accessibility has become an important issue with many in the golf industry. The United States Golf Association (USGA) has long been known as the regulator for the game of golf. Responsible for writing the rules of golf, conducting national championships, and maintaining the handicap system, the USGA has maintained the integrity of the game since 1894.

Presents guidelines in managing golf related elbow injuries in the U.S. Discussions on medial and lateral epicondylitis; Signs and symptoms of epicondylitis in the elbow; Significance of proper biomechanics of the golf grip and swing in preventing elbow injuries.

Executive Summary: The past decade has seen little change in the total number of United States golfers, yet the total number of golf courses is quickly increasing (National Golf Foundation, 1998). This increase in competition for market share has made it vital for managers to examine the variables that influence golfers to use and return to their facilities. Two variables that have been shown to be related to purchase intentions and repeat purchase behavior are consumer satisfaction (Dube, Renaghan, & Miller, 1994; Williams, 1989) and perceived value (Wakefield & Barnes, 1996; Zeithaml, 1988). While previous studies have shown that valuable information can be obtained by analyzing the satisfaction and perceived value of various subjects, the investigation of golfers' satisfaction and perceived value of a golfing experience has received little attention ( Howard, 1997). Further, the product offered at each golf course is quite distinct, which can have an effect on golfers' appraisal of their experiences (Priestley, 1994). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine selected determinants of both a satisfying experience on a golf course and one with perceived value at three distinctly different golf course types. Subjects ( n = 1,397) were randomly selected by tee times stratified by weekday and weekend and season of the year at six different Cleveland Metro Parks public golf courses. Golf courses were collapsed into the categories of "Premier" (18-hole courses with numerous amenities), "Quality" (18- hole courses with few amenities) and "9-hole Courses." Results suggest that golfers' overall satisfaction and perceived value are different for different types of courses played. Findings also suggest that the demographic and golfographic variables that are related to golfers' overall satisfaction and perceived value vary by the type of golf course played. It was further found that the perceived performance of selected golf course ser\ices and physical features predict overall satisfaction and perceived value differently at different types of golf courses. Given the relationship between overall satisfaction, perceived value, and future purchase behavior, results of die present study provide important direction for golf course management. With the knowledge of which personal variables and golf course amenities are better at predicting golfers' satisfaction and perceived value at different golf course types, golf course managers should be better prepared to alter the golfing experience and marketing plan to maximize their resources and their clientele's experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]