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White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been overabundant in eastern North America for more than five decades, resulting in depauperate understories and ricocheting effects on higher trophic levels. Even after deer populations are reduced, understory plant communities may fail to recover for an unknown length of time due to persistent legacy effects. We surveyed understory plant communities in six deer exclosures and paired reference plots in northwestern Pennsylvania to determine the degree to which 19 years of deer exclusion was sufficient for recovery of species richness, diversity, percent cover, and understory structural complexity. We observed a 2.3-fold increase in tree cover and a 60% reduction in fern cover in the ground layer, as well as a 114-fold increase in foliage density between 80 and 200 cm above ground level, in exclosures compared to reference plots. However, the exclosures did not permanently support higher overall percent cover, species richness, or diversity in the ground layer, nor did we detect any meaningful divergence in community composition between exclosures and reference plots. We conclude that 19 years of release from chronic over-browsing are sufficient to restore understory structural complexity, but recovery of diversity in the ground layer will require more time or direct intervention. Key words: white-tailed deer, exclosure, legacy effect, understory plant community, Allegheny National Forest, Introduction In eastern North American forests, overabundant whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) are causing substantial declines in plant abundance, diversity, and reproduction, and are also altering plant species composition [...]

The outcome of encounters between predators and prey affects predation rates and ultimately population dynamics. Determining how environmental features influence predation rates helps guide conservation and management efforts. We studied where gray wolves (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) and coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) killed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) in northern Wisconsin, USA. We monitored 499 white-tailed deer for cause-specific mortality between 2011 and 2014 using VHF radio collars. We investigated the locations of 125 deer mortalities and determined that 63 were canid (wolf or coyote) kill sites. We analyzed spatial patterns of kill sites using resource selection functions in a model selection framework, incorporating environmental variables including vegetative cover, human development, snow depth, and water. We found no evidence that vegetative cover or human development affected predation risk; however, we did find that increasing snow depth resulted in increased relative predation risk. This finding is consistent with existing research on the influence of snow cover on white-tailed deer survival. Our results suggest that understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of white-tailed deer predation requires a better understanding of snow depth variation in space and time. As climate change scenarios predict changes in snowfall throughout the northern hemisphere, understanding the effect on predator--prey spatial dynamics will be important for management and conservation efforts. Key words: predation, white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, gray wolf, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, predator--prey dynamics, seasonal variation, spatial dynamics. Le dénouement de rencontres de prédateurs et de proies a une incidence sur les taux de prédation et, en définitive, sur la dynamique des populations. La détermination de l'influence d'éléments du milieu sur les taux de prédation aide à guider les efforts de conservation et de gestion. Nous avons étudié des lieux de prédation de cerfs de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) par des loups gris (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) ou des coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) dans le nord du Wisconsin (Etats-Unis). Nous avons suivi 499 cerfs de Virginie à l'aide de colliers émetteurs VHF de 2011 à 2014, afin de déterminer les causes de mortalité. Nous avons examiné les lieux de 125 morts de cerf et déterminé que 63 étaient des sites de prédation par des canidés (loup ou coyote). Nous avons analysé la répartition spatiale des lieux de prédation à l'aide de fonctions de sélection de ressources dans un cadre de sélection de modèles, en intégrant différentes variables environnementales, dont le couvert végétal, l'aménagement anthropique, l'épaisseur de la neige et la présence d'eau. Nous n'avons relevé aucun indice d'une incidence du couvert végétal ou de l'aménagement anthropique sur le risque de prédation; nous avons toutefois constaté qu'une plus grande épaisseur de neige se traduisait par un risque de prédation relatif accru. Cette constatation concorde avec des travaux existants sur l'influence du manteau neigeux sur la survie du cerf de Virginie. Nos résultats donnent à penser qu'une meilleure compréhension des variations de l'épaisseur de la neige dans l'espace et le temps est nécessaire à la compréhension des motifs spatiaux et temporels de prédation des cerfs de Virginie. Comme les scénarios de changement climatique prédisent des changements des chutes de neige dans tout l'hémisphère nord, la compréhension de l'effet de la dynamique spatiale des interactions prédateursproies sera importante pour les efforts de gestion et de conservation. [Traduit par la Rédaction] Mots-clés : prédation, cerf de Virginie, Odocoileus virginianus, loup gris, Canis lupus, coyote, Canis latrans, dynamique prédateurs-proies, variation saisonnière, dynamique spatiale., Introduction Animals make behavioral trade-offs to increase survival (Boyce and McDonald 1999; Kunkel and Pletscher 2000), and ultimately fitness (DeCesare et al. 2014). Prey animals balance foraging and vigilance behaviors [...]

Mortality rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) fawns have been quantified throughout North America. Few studies, however, have assessed cause-specific mortality of fawns after the first 3 months of life or during a severe weather event. During 2010-2014, we captured and radio-tracked 93 fawns in southern and central Illinois and recorded 18 mortality events. In order of importance, survival rates were affected by days since capture, year of drought, age at capture, week after capture (1 or 0 indicator), and region. Estimated overwinter (fall through spring) survival rate ([+ or -]SE) of fawns in both regions during 2010-2014 was 0.83 [+ or -] 0.04. However, estimated overwinter survival rates were depressed during 2012-2013, following the severe drought of 2012 (0.63 [+ or -] 0.11 or 0.66 [+ or -] 0.11 depending on the model). Main causes of mortality were capture-related and predation, though some dead deer also showed signs of hemorrhagic disease. We suspect that the extreme drought of 2012 created favorable conditions for fall--spring mortality of fawns, due to elevated disease transmission and lower forage quality and quantity for deer. In addition, drought may have contributed to predation by reducing abundance of alternative prey. Our results suggest that severe weather conditions during summer can substantially impact overwinter fawn survival. Key words: bobcat, drought, Lynx rufus, mortality, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survival, predation, white-tailed deer. Les taux de mortalite de faons de cerf de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) ont ete quantifies partout en Amerique du Nord. Peu d'etudes ont toutefois evalue la mortalite de faons associee a des causes precises apres les trois premiers mois de leur vie ou durant des evenements meteorologiques intenses. De 2010 a 2014, nous avons capture et suivi a l'aide de radioemetteurs 93 faons dans le sud et le centre de l'Illinois et enregistre 18 evenements de mortalite. En ordre d'importance, les facteurs suivants influencaient les taux de survie : le nombre de jours depuis la capture, une annee de secheresse, l'age au moment de la capture, la semaine apres la capture (indicateur 1 ou 0) et la region. Le taux de survie hivernale (de l'automne au printemps) estime ([+ or -]ET) des faons dans les deux regions de 2010 a 2014 etait de 0,83 [+ or -] 0,04. Les taux de survie hivernale estimes etaient toutefois plus faibles durant la saison 2012-2013, suivant l'intense secheresse de 2012 (0,63 [+ or -] 0,11 ou 0,66 [+ or -] 0,11, selon le modele). Les principales causes de mortalite etaient des causes reliees a la capture, ainsi que la predation, bien que certains cerfs morts aient aussi presente des signes de maladie hemorragique. Nous soupconnons la secheresse extreme de 2012 d'avoir cree des conditions favorables a une mortalite des faons de l'automne au printemps en raison de la transmission accrue de maladies, de la moins bonne qualite de la nourriture et d'une moins grande quantite de cerfs. La secheresse pourrait en outre avoir contribue a accroitre la predation en reduisant l'abondance d'autres proies. Nos resultats portent a croire que des conditions de mauvais temps durant l'ete peuvent avoir une incidence importante sur la survie hivernale des faons. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : lynx roux, secheresse, Lynx rufus, mortalite, Odocoileus virginianus, Illinois, survie, predation, cerf de Virginie., Introduction Accurate estimates of vital rates are important for understanding wildlife population dynamics and for species management. For white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)), fawn production and survival rates are [...]

Decades of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) overpopulation have dramatically homogenized forests across much of the eastern United States, creating depauperate forest understory communities. The rate at which these communities recover once deer browsing has been reduced remains an open question. We evaluate overbrowsing legacy effects by examining how forest herbaceous layers respond in terms of biodiversity, density, and community composition over 11 years using exclosures and control plots within a mature beech-maple forest. Although little recovery occurred in the first 5 years, total density and preferred browse density rebounded substantially during the final years of the study. Although community composition began to diverge between exclosure and control plots after 5 years, diversity failed to recover even after 11 years of excluding browsers. Our findings show that vulnerable species can increase after excluding browsers but only if those species were initially present. Biodiversity recovery may be extremely slow because preferred browse species have been nearly extirpated from many forests and thus are unable to recruit into refugia. We empirically demonstrate the extent of the ghost of herbivory past or legacy effect of browsing, i.e., the substantial time delay between herbivore abatement and community response after decades of high deer densities. Key words: white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, herbivory, understory, forest recovery. Des decennies de surpopulation du cerf de Virginie (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) ont radicalement homogeneise les forets dans la majeure partie de l'est des Etats-Unis, creant des communautes vegetales de sous-bois appauvries. On ignore a quelle vitesse ces communautes se retablissent une fois reduit le broutement du cerf. Nous avons evalue les effets d'un heritage de broutement excessif en examinant la reponse des strates forestieres herbacees en regard de la biodiversite, de la densite et de la composition vegetale sur une periode de 11 ans, au moyen d'exclos et de places-echantillons temoins dans une erabliere a hetre mature. Nous avons observe tres peu de signes de retablissement durant les 5 premieres annees, mais la densite totale de vegetation et la densite des especes preferees du cerf se sont substantiellement accrues au cours des six annees suivantes. Bien que la composition des communautes vegetales des exclos et des places-echantillons temoins ait commence a differer apres 5 ans, la diversite n'etait pas retablie meme apres 11 ans d'exclusion des brouteurs. Nos resultats montrent que la densite des especes vulnerables peut augmenter apres l'exclusion des brouteurs seulement si elles etaient preetablies. Le retablissement de la biodiversite peut s'averer extremement lent parce que les especes preferees des brouteurs ont ete presque eliminees de plusieurs forets et qu'il n'y a plus de refuges pour soutenir le recrutement. Nous demontrons empiriquement l'importance du spectre d'un passe d'herbivorisme ou de l'effet d'un heritage de broutement qui s'expriment par un long delai entre la diminution des herbivores et la reponse des communautes vegetales apres des decennies de fortes densites de cerfs. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles: cerf de Virginie, Odocoileus virginianus, herbivorisme, sous-bois, retablissement de la foret., Introduction In many areas of the United States, the population density of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) has dramatically increased over the past century to levels that are significantly [...]

Litter-dwelling arthropods play crucial roles in litter decomposition and nutrient cycling, and changes in their diversity or abundance can affect these processes. Previous studies have outlined individual effects of invasive plants and overabundant ungulates on litter-dwelling arthropod communities but have paid little attention to whether invasive plants and ungulates interact to affect these arthropod communifies. We examined how invasive Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) and grazing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) affected diversity, abundance, and taxonomic composition of litter-dwelling arthropod communities in a deciduous forest in southwestern Ohio. We also examined whether deer or honeysuckle affected substrate composition and depth of litter. We found no significant effect of honeysuckle, deer, or their interaction on arthropod diversity, bur exclusion of deer increased total arthropod abundance and abundance of Araneae, and thereby affected taxonomic composition of the litter community. These effects were likely related to greater plant cover and less soil compaction in areas from which deer were excluded. Honeysuckle negatively affected Araneae abundance and positively affected Acari abundance, possibly revealing an indirect effect of Araneae on Acari. A honeysuckle x deer interaction on abundance of Acari was important only during the first year of our study. There were no differences in arthropod abundance between honeysuckle-absent and honeysuckle-removed plots, indicating rapid restoration of the litter community after honeysuckle removal. Neither honeysuckle nor deer affected composition or depth of litter. Our findings suggest that current management techniques that control the effects of honeysuckle and deer on native plant communities by separate measures may be sufficient to reduce impacts on litter-dwelling arthropods., INTRODUCTION Above-ground and below-ground food webs often have been studied separately, although connections between these food webs are being revealed (Wardle, 2002; Coleman et al., 2004; Bardgett and Wardle, 2010). [...]

* Premise of the study: Over-browsing of the understory vegetation by white-tailed deer has been a cause of decline in many plant populations. Liliaceae are particularly sensitive, yet individual species differ in their tolerance to deer herbivory. In this paper, we examine whether differences in clonal habit, carbon allocation patterns, and phenology influence the capacity of a species to tolerate and recover from repeated herbivory. * Methods: Flowering ramets of Clintonia borealis, Maianthemum canadense, and Trillium erectum were subjected to total defoliation for one or two springs. * Key results: Survival was highest in the nonclonal species, T. erectum, most probably due to its very large carbohydrate reserves. Nutrient reserves were less affected than carbohydrate reserves by defoliation, confirming the importance of carbohydrate reserves for survival. However, faster recovery following episodes of defoliation was observed not in the species that sprouted the earliest, T. erectum, but in the clonal species, M. canadense, which had the smallest carbohydrate reserves but also a lower shoot to root ratio than the other clonal species, C. borealis. All plants that were defoliated for 2 years only partially recovered in terms of leaf area, plant biomass, and carbohydrate and nutrient reserves, confirming the overall sensitivity of these species to simulated deer herbivory. * Conclusions: High carbohydrate reserves and consequently low shoot to root ratios appear to increase tolerance to herbivory, whereas clonal species recover faster than nonclonal species. The role played by carbohydrates reserves suggests that these species could benefit from slightly higher light conditions in areas subjected to high deer pressure. Key words: carbohydrate reserves; Clintonia borealis; deer herbivory; defoliation; Liliacaeae; Maianthemum canadense; nutrient reserves; recovery; Trillium erectum. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0900200

Much of our present knowledge of mixed migration strategies of northern populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) comes from short-term studies, which limits the observed variation of winter severity and thus our understanding of its potential influence on the migration behavior of study cohorts. From 1991 to 2006, we assessed the incidence of autumn migratory versus nonmigratory behavior of 335 adult (> 1.0 year old) females, what proportion were conditional versus obligate migrators, the importance of winter severity as a factor affecting the migratory response, and the effect of winter severity and study length on the classification of deer as conditional or obligate migrators and composition of study populations. Annual winter conditions ranged from historically mild to severe. The annual estimated proportion of deer migrating from spring-summer-autumn range to winter range was positively related to winter severity, and the cumulative probability of deer migrating tracked accumulating snow depths as winters progressed. However, the relationship was highly variable, largely attributable to the annual variation in migratory behavior of individuals radiomonitored for 2-7 years. Importantly, because of the variability of autumn-winter weather conditions, we noted that the proportion of deer we classified as obligate migrators was inversely related to the number of years individuals were monitored. Further, the composition (nonmigratory, conditional, and obligate migrators) of the study cohort was strongly influenced by the severity of winter conditions in the year of capture, as well as in subsequent winters of monitoring. Key words: autumn migration, interval-censored, long-term study, migration, Odocoileus virginianus, white-tailed deer, winter severity

Resource pulses can have both direct bottom-up and indirect top-down effects on their consumers, but comparatively few studies have investigated the top-down effects of naturally occurring resource pulses on plants. This study describes two years of field experiments conducted to determine the indirect effects of 17-year periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) on herbivory in American bellflowers (Campanulastrum americanum). In 2004, the area of damaged leaves on cicada-supplemented plants was 78% greater than the area of damaged leaves on control plants. In 2005, cicada-supplemented plants were more likely to experience herbivory by mammalian herbivores than control plants. When large herbivores were excluded, similar patterns of leaf herbivory were observed, but these differences were not statistically significant. These results suggest that the pulsed input of dead periodical cicada bodies increased rates of herbivory on bellflowers, and that this effect was largely mediated by the selective foraging of large mammalian herbivores. More broadly, this study suggests that pulses of limiting resources can have both positive direct effects on plants and negative indirect effects due to selective herbivory, and that the net effects of pulsed resources on plants may depend on the composition and behavior of the surrounding herbivore community. Key words: bottom-up effects; Campanulastrum americanum; fertilization; foliar nitrogen; Magicicada spp.; periodic cicada; pulsed resources; resource pulses; satiation; selective herbivory; top-down effects; white-tailed deer.

To assess the effects of deer browsing on understory composition, we examined hardwood forests with documented differences in browse intensity within two regions of the Hiawatha National Forest in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. A deciduous twig damage assessment confirmed that two sites within the southern region experienced high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) browse intensity (44-49% of twigs browsed) and two sites within the northern region incurred low browse intensity (0.5% and 0.6% of twigs browsed). We used within-site sample means and site-level rarefaction curves to compare understory species richness in these two forests. The forest experiencing low browse intensity had higher woody species richness on a per plot basis than the heavily browsed forest, but the converse was observed for herbaceous species richness. Site-level evaluation with rarefaction curves confirmed the plot-scale results for herbaceous species, but different patterns in woody species richness emerged due to differences in the distributions of species across the four sites. When graphed as a function of cumulative number of plots, we again found that a low browse site had the highest woody plant species richness, but a high browse site had the highest richness values when richness was graphed as a function of cumulative number of stems sampled. This study demonstrates that although species richness is a useful tool for describing ecosystems, results for the same sites can differ based on how species are grouped and on the scale of analysis.

Both herbivory and windthrow disturbances have individually been shown to dramatically alter the structure and composition of forest communities; however, the interaction of these two factors has scarcely been examined. Windthrow disturbance creates microsites such as fallen logs and treefall mounds and pits that may hinder movement and limit visibility of large mammals, thereby reducing the impact of browsing by white-tailed deer. In an old growth Pennsylvania forest that was severely wind-damaged in 1985, a previous study based on sampling in 1994 demonstrated reduced browsing and greater Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr seedling density on treefall mounds (Long et al., 1998). In this study we surveyed mounds to see if they continue to be effective browsing refugia 9 y later. We also determined whether other types of microsites and nearby microsites provide protection from browsing and tested for an associational density refuge, whereby seedlings of a preferred species are less browsed when surrounded by a high density of saplings. Tsuga canadensis seedlings occurred more frequently on microsites, particularly logs and mounds, whereas randomly selected points occurred most frequently off microsites. Tsuga canadensis seedlings that established off microsites were more heavily browsed than seedlings on mounds or logs. Seedling heights were greatest on mounds and shortest on logs. Although growing on a microsite acted as refugia from browsing, having multiple surrounding microsites did not. Additionally, seedling browse damage was not decreased by having multiple nearby saplings, suggesting no associational defense. Nevertheless, certain microsites continue to provide refugia from browsing 18 y after disturbance and, thereby, enhance regeneration of Tsuga canadensis.

Effects of multiple herbivores were isolated in a rare, old-growth, maritime forest that has been affected by high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations for several decades. Three decades of change in the plant community was described using permanent plots and nearly two decades of recovery using deer exclosures. Additional short-term exclosure experiments were used to separate the effect of rabbit and vole herbivory and the influence of canopy type on understory vegetation. We assessed whether natural enclosures formed by high densities of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia and S. glauca) provide spatial refugia for plant species from deer. Significant differences in fenced plots indicate that deer, rabbits and voles individually affect the understory vegetation, though rabbits and voles are secondary to deer that are the major herbivore in the American holly (Ilex opaca) forest. Plant cover decreased within permanent plots from 1967 to 1986; during the same time period deer densities increased drastically island-wide. Since plots were fenced in 1986 no additional significant changes were detected, but this is likely due to an inadequate sample size, The cover of all species depended on the interaction of fencing and canopy type with significantly higher plant cover in fenced plots beneath mixed or exclusively deciduous canopy. The proportion of woody stems surpassing 0.5 m tall was significantly higher when stems were fenced. Browsing impacts were apparent on approximately a quarter of the vegetation in June 2003. Plant cover, richness and diversity were higher within natural greenbrier enclosures. Overall the exclosure studies indicate the potential natural recovery that could occur within the forest if deer herbivory were limited. Few species have been extirpated, although several are confined to the greenbrier enclosures. Under the current level of herbivory, the maritime holly forest composition will be altered, changing the characteristic canopy of a critically imperiled plant community.

Some 30 y after wolves (Canis lupus) were implicated in decimating wintering white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a 3000-[km.sup.2] area of northeastern Minnesota, wintering deer still have not recolonized the area. From 1976 to 2004, we aerially radio-tracked wolves there during 250 h and recorded 2 deer (in 1985 and 2000) killed or eaten by wolves during February and March. We observed no other deer or deer sign, but regularly observed deer, deer sign and wolf-killed deer in adjacent wolf-pack territories. Although habitat in the study area generally remains poor, some regeneration has taken place, and deer have increased adjacent to the area. However, wolf numbers have persisted by preying on moose (Alces alces). We could detect no reason other than wolf predation and deer migration traditions for why wintering deer have not recolonized the area.

The indirect effects of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on the ground-dwelling herpetofauna and invertebrates in the Cuyahoga National Park, Ohio, USA are discussed. The analysis proves that the indirect effects of a keystone herbivore lead to the elevation of local animal diversity in any region.

An eight-year selection process is applied in an attempt to determine if yearling antler in subsequent cohorts could be improved by selecting for yearling male white-tailed deer exhibiting superior antler potential under suboptimal nutritional conditions. Result provides an insight to the effectiveness of a selection process in an overall deer management program.

The diurnal and seasonal activity pattern and habitat associations of the White-tailed deer on the Konza Prairie biological Station, Kansas are assessed from June 1997 through February 1998. Diurnal activity of the white-tailed deer was associated more often with lower upland during summer and winter, but with lowland during autumn.

The hearing range of white-tailed deer determined by using auditory brainstem response detected frequencies to at least 30 kHz.

The studies of space use and survival of 43 female white-tailed deer in an exurban setting near Carbondale, Illinois revealed the deer to have larger home ranges than most suburban deer populations and generally smaller home ranges than rural deer populations.

The winter forage selection in white-tailed deer at high density shows a preference for balsam fir mainly due to its low content of tannins and fibers.

A study is conducted to quantify direct and indirect contract rates among white-tailed deer and to compare them with simpler measures of joint space use. Direct contact rates were found to increase with increasing volume of intersection (VI) and were higher in autumn-spring than in summer, while indirect contract rates also found to increase with VI were affected lesser by both season and pair-type.

The impact of Key deer herbivory on natural vegetation near urban areas was studied by comparing plant densities and diversity in hardwood hammocks adjacent to urban and distant from exurban developed areas. No differences in total plant species or diversity on islands with high densities of deer were detected and testing of deer browsing intensity on islands of high deer density showed browsing pressures to be higher on preferred plant species in hammocks near urban areas than exurban areas.

A 13-year survival (time survived since birth) and cause-specific mortality study, divided into 2 phases, (phase I covering the period 1-6 years and phase II 7-13 years) of female white-tailed deer during extreme variability in winter severity and hunting pressure is conducted. Results reveal that the greatest risk of mortality is in the first year of life and models using the constructed discrete time variable give unbiased survival estimates.

White-tailed deer fawns were fitted with radiocollars during spring 2001 and 2002 to quantify cause-specific mortality, survival, and home range size and composition in the southwestern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, USA. It was observed that habitat quality, land cover and use were potential factors that contributed to high fawn survival.

The environmental damage from white-tailed deer grazing activities, in southern Quebec, is examined.

The objective was to compare deer harvest-reporting rates between mail-in archery-kill report cards and hunter surveys from the same group of bowhunters over a 3-year period and evaluate factors influencing harvest-reporting rates. It is concluded that harvest incentives would increase harvest-reporting rates, especially in areas with high deer populations, and that caution should be used when evaluating effects of harvest incentive programs.

A new technique is described for locating deer fawns, using thermal imaging technology. In this study, the thermal imaging system enabled capture efficiency of fawns to equal or exceed all other reported studies.

The seasonal movement patterns and home ranges of white-tailed deer in Southwest Minnesota are described. The data provided could be helpful to biologists managing northern populations of white-tailed deer in fragmented environments by detailing the relationship between climate, intensive agriculture, and deer movements.

Arboreal lichen production and availability for Rock Mountain elk, white-tailed deer and mule deer during winter in Western Montana was studied. A strong linear relationship between lichen availability and lichens consumed showed that lichen use was driven by availability rather than by opportunistic foraging, and that ungulates might have selected habitat due to lichen availability.

A study is undertaken to construct a procedure to detect and outline habitat-type boundaries, establish successional requirements, and create landscape-size systems with habitat potential for white-tailed deer. Results of the study are presented, which can help wildlife managers in planning and achieving habitat management targets.