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Additional file 1: Table S1. Summary of variation in ecology and skin morphology for the five sampled caecilian species. Dermal fold (annulation) system categories as follows: primary = borders between folds aligned with those between underlying somites and vertebrae; secondary = folds midway between borders underlying somites and vertebrae; “tertiary” = many folds, not aligned with underlying somites and vertebrae (see Gower and Wilkinson [2007], and Wilkinson and Nussbaum [17]. Degree of fossoriality (see Bardua et al. [2019]) and habitat is based on observation in the field (DJG, DSM, MW pers. obs.). See San Mauro et al. [21], Taylor [14], and Wilkinson, Sherratt, Starace, and Gower (2013) for more information on morphology and maternal dermatophagy. Table S2. Tissue sample information and experimental design for the differential expression analysis. Table S3. Characterisation of significantly up-regulated sequences in the caecilian skin transcriptomes. Table S4. Antimicrobial peptide annotation (APD31, DADP2, Uniprot terms: Andersonin3, Cathelicidin4, Cecropin5 and Magainin6) and occurrence (indicated by an X) in skin transcriptomes of the five sampled caecilian species. Table S5. Peptide pheromones annotation and occurrence (indicated by an X) in skin transcriptomes of the five sampled caecilian species. Table S6. Annotated AMPs and p-values for Wilcoxon signed-rank test of differences between AMP expression levels in midbody and posterior skin samples. * indicates selfbuilt databases for subset of entries for these UniProt terms (see Materials and Methods). For R. bivittatum, data were available only for midbody skin. Figure S1. PCA plots of PC1 versus PC2 (first column), PC2 versus PC3 (second column), and PC1 versus PC4 (third column) showing variance among gene expression levels in various tissue types across the five sampled caecilian species. Samples were color coded by tissue type (first row), species (second row), and sequencing company (third row). Figure S2. Network graphs for GO domains (A: biological process, B: molecular function and C: cellular component) of skin up-regulated genes. Greater colour intensity indicates higher fold change in expression in caecilian skin, and circle size is positively correlated with number of genes with the same GO in the UniProt database. Figure S3. Expressed sequences annotated as encoding peptides and their presence in the skin of the five sampled caecilian species.

Supplementary methods, figures (S1-S2), tables (S1-S5) and references

Table S1. Description of genes inferred to have been under positive selection in caecilian evolution (ω* for sites under positive selection on the foreground branch, 2a and 2b sites; NR database = Non redundant protein database; F = foregut; H = heart; K = kidney; L = liver; Lu = lung; M = muscle; S = skin; Sp = spleen; T = testis). (PDF 300 kb)

Psammodromus occidentalis new species Holotype: MNCN / ADN 34516 (field number PF_08_ 2001, GenBank accession number FJ 587677), adult male from Colmenar del Arroyo (Madrid, Spain, 40 �� 27 ��� 22.14 ������N, 4 �� 10 ��� 28.36 ������W) captured on 24 October 2008 by Patrick S. Fitze and Virginia Gonzalez-Jimena. It is conserved in pure alcohol and frozen at - 80 ��C. Voucher number MNCN / ADN tail characteristics intact re-grown, cut at 57 re-grown, cut at 56 re-grown, cut at 71 intact mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 belly coloration white white yellowish yellowish yellowish body mass (g) 1.48 1.87 1.99 1.48 1.05 Description of the holotype. Adult male (Figure 4) with detached original tail: SVL 43 mm, total length 63 mm, belly colour white, body mass 1.497 g, 12 femoral pores on both hind limbs, head length 10.7 mm, head width 5.5 mm, snout length 3.5 mm, snout width 4.1 mm, anal scale width 2.9 mm, 24 ventral scales, no supralabial scale below the subocular scale, 18 throat scales, one collar scale, two ocelli on each flank, nuptial coloration score 0. Paratypes: MNCN / ADN 34515 (field number PF_08_ 2000, GenBank accession number FJ 587676), first-year female. BMNH 2008.271 (field number PF_08_ 2002; DNA sample MNCN / ADN 34517; GenBank accession number FJ 587678), adult male. BMNH 2008.272 (field number PF_08_ 2003; DNA sample MNCN / ADN 34518, GenBank accesion number: FJ 587679), first year male. All specimens were captured in the type locality (Colmenar del Arroyo, Madrid 40 �� 27 ��� 22.14 ������N, 4 �� 10 ��� 28.36 ������W) by Patrick S. Fitze and Virginia Gonzalez-Jimena on October 24 th, 2008. They are conserved in pure alcohol and frozen at - 80 ��C. The characteristics of the collected individuals are summarized in Table 3. Diagnosis. Psammodromus occidentalis sp. n. (former name: P. hispanicus hispanicus Western lineage; Fitze et al. 2011) shows 20���29 ventral scale rows, no supralabial scale below the subocular scale, 15���26 throat scales, 0��� 3 collar scales, 9���15 femoral pores, a snout shape of 0.96���2.51, 0���5 ocelli, and a nuptial coloration score of 0���4. It can be distinguished from the edwardsianus lineage by the absence of a supralabial scale below the subocular scale, lower femoral pore numbers, more extended nuptial coloration, and slightly bigger snout shape values, and from the Central lineage (P. hispanicus) by bigger snout shape values, corresponding to a less pointed snout, higher number of femoral pores, and higher number of ocelli. Molecular differentiation based on mitochondrial and the nuclear datasets shows that P. occidentalis sp. n. is more distant from the edwardsianus and Central lineage than the later two from each other. Psammodromus occidentalis sp. n. can be easily distinguished from P. algirus by the smaller body size, a shorter tail length that rarely exceeds 2 x SVL (in adult individuals with intact tail: mean = 1.5 x �� 0.02; range = 0.7 ��� 2.4; P. algirus > 2 x SVL, B��hme 1981), absence of pterygoid teeth (Arnold 1989), presence of a gular fold and distinct collar scales, absence of imbricated and pointed ventral scales, and presence of two TABLE 3. Variation of Psammodromus occidentalis sp. n. paratypes collected on 24 October 2008 at the holotype locality. central ventral rows of clearly narrower scales compared to scales of adjoining rows. Psammodromus occidentalis sp. n. differs from P. blanci by a clearly present gular fold, absence of imbricate or rounded ventral scales, two narrower central ventral rows (compared to the adjoining ventral rows), by rarely existing solid lateral lines, and by a brown grayish dorsal ground color (Schleich et al. 1996). It differs from P. microdactylus by the presence of a gular fold, distinct collar scales, a brown grayish dorsal ground color, two dashed lateral lines, absence of pointed or rounded central ventral rows, presence of two narrower central ventral rows, and absence of greenish or dark olive dorsal ground color (Schleich et al. 1996). Etymology. The species epithet refers to the geographical distribution of this lizard. All described populations are located on the Western Iberian Peninsula. Distribution. P. occidentalis sp. n. was captured on the Western Iberian Peninsula (Figure 1). The edwardsianus and Central lineages were found on the East coast and in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula, as previously described (Boulenger 1921; Fitze et al. 2011)., Published as part of Fitze, Patrick S., Gonzalez-Jimena, Virginia, San-Jose, Luis M., Mauro, Diego San & Zardoya, Rafael, 2012, A new species of sand racer, Psammodromus (Squamata: Lacertidae), from the Western Iberian Peninsula, pp. 41-52 in Zootaxa 3205 on pages 47-50, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.213215, {"references":["Bohme, W. (1981) Psammodromus algirus (Linnaeus 1766) - Algerischer Sandlaufer, p. 479 - 491. In: Bohme W. (Ed.). Handbuch der Reptilien und Amphibien Europas. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden. Vol. 1.","Arnold, E. N. (1989) Towards a phylogeny and biogeography of the Lacertidae: relationships within an Old-World family of lizards derived from morphology. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History, 55, 209 - 257.","Schleich, H. H., Kastle W. & Kabisch K. (1996). Amphibians and reptiles of North Africa. Koeltz, Konigstein. 630 pp.","Boulenger, G. A. (1921) Psammodromus In: Boulenger, G. A. (Ed.) Monograph of the Lacertidae. Johnson Reprint Corporation, London, Vol. 2, pp. 163 - 179."]}

2. Grandisonia Taylor, 1968 Type species: Hypogeophis alternans Stejneger, 1893 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only indotyphlids with eyes and tentacular grooves not covered by bone, tentacular apertures not adjacent to or above level of eyes, and olfactory chambers partially divided by bony eminentia olfactoria. Distribution: Seychelles. Content: Three species (alternans, larvata, sechellensis)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 52, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Stejneger, L. (1893) On some collections of reptiles and batrachians from East Africa and the adjacent islands, recently received from Dr. W. L. Abbott and Mr. William Astor Chanler, with descriptions of new species. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 16, 711 - 741."]}

2. Chthonerpeton Peters, 1879 Type species: Siphonops indistinctus Reinhardt & L��tken, 1861 by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only typhlonectids with ovate external nares. Distribution: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Uruguay. Content: Eight species (arii, braestrupi, exile, indistinctum, noctinectes, onorei, perissodus, viviparum)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 58, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Reinhardt, J. T. & Lutken, C. F. (1861) Bidrag til kundskab om Brasiliens Padder og Krybdyr. Videnskabelige Meddelelser Dansk Naturhistorisk Forening Kjobenhaun, 1861 (10 - 15), 143 - 242."]}

1. Crotaphatrema Nussbaum, 1985 Type species: Herpele bornmuelleri Werner, 1899 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only stegokrotaphic scolecomorphids. Distribution: Cameroon. Content: Three species (bornmuelleri, lamottei, tchabalmbaboensis)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 54, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Nussbaum, R. A. (1985) Systematics of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) of the family Scolecomorphidae. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 713, 1 - 49.","Werner, F. (1899) Ueber Reptilien und Batrachier aus Togoland, Kamerun, und Deutsch-Neu-Guinea, Grossenteils aus dem K. Museum fur Naturkunde in Berlin. Verhandlungen Zoologische-Botanische Gesellschaft in Wien, 49, 132 - 157."]}

6. Praslinia Boulenger, 1909 Type species: Praslinia cooperi Boulenger, 1909 by monotypy. Diagnosis: The only indotyphlids with the tentacular apertures adjacent to the eyes. Distribution: Seychelles. Content: One species (cooperi)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 52, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Boulenger, G. A. (1909) A list of the freshwater fishes, batrachians, and reptiles obtained by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner's expedition to the Indian Ocean. Transactions of the Linnaean Society of London, 2 (12), 291 - 300."]}

4. Idiocranium Parker, 1936 Type species: Idiocranium russeli Parker, 1936 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only caecilians with massive exposure of the mesethmoid between the nasals. Distribution: Cameroon. Content: One species (russeli)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 52, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Parker, H. W. (1936) The amphibians of the Mamfe Division, Cameroons (1) Zoogeography and systematics. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1, 64 - 163."]}

3. Uraeotyphlus Peters, 1879 Type species: Coecilia oxyura Dum��ril & Bibron, 1841 by subsequent designation of Noble (1924). Diagnosis: The only ichthyophiids with tentacular apertures far forward, below the nares. Distribution: India. Content: Seven species (malabaricus, oxyurus, narayani, menoni, interruptus, gansi, oommeni)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 50, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Dumeril, A. M. C. & Bibron, G. (1841) Erpetologie Generale ou Histoire Naturelle Complete des Reptiles, Vol. 8. Librairie Encylopedique de Roret, Paris.","Noble, G. K. (1924) Contributions to the herpetology of the Belgian Congo based on the collection of the American Museum Congo Expedition 1909 - 1915. Part III. Amphibia: with abstracts from the field notes of Herbert Lang and James P. Chapin. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 49, 147 - 347."]}

5. Mimosiphonops Taylor, 1968 Type species: Mimosiphonops vermiculatus Taylor, 1968 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with the tentacular apertures closer to the nares than to the eyes. Distribution: Brazil. Content: Two species (reinhardti, vermiculatus)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on pages 56-57, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas."]}

4. Potomotyphlus Taylor, 1968 Type species: Caecilia kaupii Berthold, 1859 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only typhlonectids with an anteriorly expanded anal (cloacal) disc. Distribution: Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Venezuela. Content: One species (kaupii)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 58, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Berthold, A. A. (1859) Einige neue Reptilien des Akademie Zoologisches Museums zu Gottingen. Nachricten von der Gesellschaften der Wissenschaftlicen zu Gottingen, 1859 (1 - 20), 179 - 181."]}

1. Dermophis Peters, 1879 Type species: Siphonops mexicanus Dum��ril & Bibron, 1841 (Fig. 3) by subsequent designation of Noble (1924). Diagnosis: The only dermophiids without inner mandibular teeth. Distribution: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama. Content: Seven species (costaricense, glandulosus, gracilior, mexicanus, oaxacae, occidentalis, parviceps)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 46, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Dumeril, A. M. C. & Bibron, G. (1841) Erpetologie Generale ou Histoire Naturelle Complete des Reptiles, Vol. 8. Librairie Encylopedique de Roret, Paris.","Noble, G. K. (1924) Contributions to the herpetology of the Belgian Congo based on the collection of the American Museum Congo Expedition 1909 - 1915. Part III. Amphibia: with abstracts from the field notes of Herbert Lang and James P. Chapin. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 49, 147 - 347."]}

4. Schistometopum Parker, 1941. Type species: Dermophis gregorii Boulenger, 1894 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only dermophiids with eyes not covered with bone, tentacular apertures closer to the eyes than to the nares, and inner mandibular teeth. Distribution: Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, S��o Tom��, Tanzania. Content: Two species (gregorii, thomense)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 47, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Parker, H. W. (1941) The caecilians of the Seychelles. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11 (7), 1 - 17.","Boulenger, G. A. (1894) Third report on additions to the batrachian collection in the Natural-History Museum. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1894 (4), 640 - 646."]}

3. Hypogeophis Peters, 1879 Type species: Coecilia rostrata Cuvier, 1829 by subsequent designation of Parker (1958). Diagnosis: The only indotyphlids with eyes not covered by bone, tentacular grooves covered by bone, and mesethmoid not massively exposed between frontals. Distribution: Seychelles. Content: Two species (brevis, rostratus)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 52, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Cuvier, G. (1829) Le Regne Animale (2 nd ed), Deterville and Crochard, Paris.","Parker, H. W. (1958) Caecilians of the Seychelles Islands with description of a new species. Copeia, 1958, 71 - 17."]}

3. Gymnopis Peters, 1874 Type species: Gymnopis multiplicata Peters, 1874 by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only dermophiids with eyes covered by bone. Distribution: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama. Content: Two species (multiplicata, syntrema)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 47, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1874) Uber neue Amphibien (Gymnopis, Siphonops, Polypedates, Rhacophorus, Hyla, Cyclodus, Euprepes, Clemmys). Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1874, 616 - 624."]}

3. Nectocaecilia Taylor, 1968 Type species: Chthonerpeton petersii Boulenger, 1882 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only typhlonectids with subtriangular nares, and lacking fins. Distribution: Brazil, Venezuela. Content: One species (petersii)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 58, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Boulenger, G. A. (1882) Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the British Museum (2 nd Ed.), Taylor and Francis, London."]}

1. Brasilotyphlus Taylor, 1968 Type species: Gymnopis braziliensis Dunn, 1945 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with a diastema between the vomerine and palatine teeth and eyes covered by bone. Distribution: Brazil. Content: Two species (braziliensis, guarantanus)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 56, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Dunn, E. R. (1945) A new caecilian of the genus Gymnopis from Brazil. American Museum Novitates, 1278, 1."]}

7. Sylvacaecilia Wake, 1987 Type species: Geotrypetes grandisonae Taylor, 1970 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only indotyphlids with eyes and tentacular grooves not covered by bone, tentacular apertures not adjacent to or above the level of the eyes, and olfactory chambers lacking bony eminentia olfactoria. Distribution: Ethiopia. Content: One species (grandisonae)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 53, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Wake, M. H. (1987) A new genus of African caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona). Journal of Herpetology, 21, 6 - 15.","Taylor, E. H. (1970) A new caecilian from Ethiopia. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 48, 849 - 854."]}

4. Microcaecilia Taylor, 1968. Type species: Dermophis albiceps Boulenger, 1882 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with eyes under bone, tentacular apertures closer to the eyes than the nares, and no distemata between vomerine and palatine teeth. Distribution: Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela. Content: Seven species (albiceps, grandis, iyob, rabei, supernumeraria, taylori, unicolor)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 56, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Boulenger, G. A. (1882) Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the British Museum (2 nd Ed.), Taylor and Francis, London."]}

1. Boulengerula Tornier, 1896 Type species: Boulengerula boulengeri Tornier, 1896 by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only herpelids with fused nasopremaxillae (lacking separate nasals and premaxillae). Distribution: Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania. Content: Seven species (boulengeri, changamwensis, denhardti, fischeri, niedeni, taitanus, uluguruensis)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 48, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Tornier, G. (1896) (1897) Die Kriechtiere Deutsch-Ost-Afrikas. Beitrage zur Systematik und Descendenzlehre, Reimer, Berlin."]}

3. Luetkenotyphlus Taylor, 1968 Type species: Siphonops brasiliensis L��tken, 1852 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with short premaxillary-maxillary tooth series (not extending posterior to the choanae), no secondary annuli or scales, and eyes not covered by bone. Distribution: Brazil. Content: One species (brasiliensis)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 56, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas."]}

5. Typhlonectes Peters, 1879 Type species: Caecilia compressicauda Dum��ril & Bibron, 1841 (Fig. 10) by subsequent designation of Dunn (1942). Diagnosis: The only typhlonectids with a subcircular anal disc, lungs and fins. Distribution: Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela. Content: Two species (compressicauda, natans)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 59, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Dumeril, A. M. C. & Bibron, G. (1841) Erpetologie Generale ou Histoire Naturelle Complete des Reptiles, Vol. 8. Librairie Encylopedique de Roret, Paris.","Dunn, E. R. (1942) The American caecilians. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, 91, 339 - 540."]}

2. Herpele Peters, 1879 Type species: Caecilia squalostoma Stutchbury, 1834 (Fig. 4) by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only herpelids with separate nasals and premaxillae. Distribution: Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria. Content: Two species (multiplicata, squalostoma)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 48, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Stutchbury, I. (1834) Description of a new species of the genus of the genus Chamaeleon. Transactions of the Linnaean Society of London, 1 (17), 362."]}

7. Siphonops Wagler, 1828 Type species: Caecilia annulata Mikan, 1820 (Fig. 9) by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with the tentacles closer to the eyes than to the nares, no secondary annuli or scales, no diastemata between vomerine and palatine teeth series, and eyes not under bone. Distribution: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Paraguay, Venezuela. Content: Five species (annulatus, hardyi, insulanus, leucoderus, paulensis)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 57, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Wagler, J. (1828) Auszuge aus seinem Systema Amphibiorum. Isis, von Oken, 21, 740 - 744.","Mikan, J. C. (1820) Delectus florae et faunae Brasiliensis. Title page, dedication, preface, and 24 plates all unnumbered. J. C. Mikan, Vindobonae."]}

1. Atretochoana Nussbaum & Wilkinson, 1995 Type species: Typhlonectes eiselti Taylor, 1968 by original designation and monotypy. Diagnosis: The only typhlonectids without lungs. Distribution: "South America ", probably Brazil. Content: one species (eiselti)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 58, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Nussbaum, R. A. & Wilkinson, M. (1995) A new genus of lungless tetrapod: a radically divergent caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 261, 331 - 335.","Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas."]}

2. Rhinatrema Dum��ril & Bibron, 1841. Type species: Caecilia bivittata Gu��rin-M��neville, 1838 (Fig. 7) by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only rhinatrematids with short tails (fewer than 10 postcloacal annuli). Distribution: Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname. Content: Three species (bivittatum, shiv, ron)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 54, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Dumeril, A. M. C. & Bibron, G. (1841) Erpetologie Generale ou Histoire Naturelle Complete des Reptiles, Vol. 8. Librairie Encylopedique de Roret, Paris.","Guerin-Meneville, M. F. E. (1838) [1829 - 1844] Iconographie du Regne Animal de G. Cuvier o representation d'apres nature de l'une des especes le plus remarquables et souvent non encore figurees, de chaque genre d'animaux. Avec un texte descriptif mis au courant de la science. Ouvrage pouvant servir d'atlas a tous les traites de zoologie. Tome I, Reptiles. J. B. Bailliere, Paris."]}

6. Parvicaecilia Taylor, 1968 Type species: Gymnopis nicefori Barbour, 1924 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only siphonopids with secondary annuli and scales, eyes not covered by bone, and open external nares. Distribution: Colombia. Content: Two species (nicefori, pricei)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 57, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.","Barbour, T. (1924) A new Gymnophis [sic] from Colombia. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 37, 125 - 126."]}

1. Caecilia Linnaeus, 1758 Type species: Caecilia tentaculata Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. 2) by subsequent designation of Dunn (1942). Diagnosis: The only caeciliids with eyes not covered by bone. Distribution: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela. Content: 33 species (abitaguae, albiventris, antioquiensis, armata, attenuata, bockermani, caribea, corpulenta, crassiquama, degenerata, disossea, dunni, flavopunctata, gracilis, guntheri, leucocephala, inca, isthmica, marcusi, mertensi, nigricans, occidentalis, orientalis, pachynema, perdita, pressula, subdermalis, subnigricans, subterminalis, tentaculata, tenuissima, thompsoni, volcani)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on pages 45-46, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae (10 th Ed), Laurentii Salva, Holmiae.","Dunn, E. R. (1942) The American caecilians. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, 91, 339 - 540."]}

2. Ichthyophis Fitzinger, 1826 Type species: Caecilia glutinosa Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. 5) by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only ichthyophiids with inner mandibular teeth and tentacular apertures below and intermediate between the eyes and nares. Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam. Content: 38 species (acuminatus, alfredii, atricollaris, bannanicus, beddomei, bernisi, biangularis, billitonensis, bombayensis, daribokensis, dulitensis, elongatus, garoensis, glandulosus, glutinosus, humphreyi, husaini, hypocyaneus, javanicus, khumhzi, kodaguensis, kohtaoensis, laosensis, longicephalus, mindanaoensis, monochrous, moustakius, nokrekensis, orthoplicatus, paucisulcus, pseudangularis, sendenyu, sikkimensis, singaporensis, sumatranus, supachaii, tricolor, youngorum)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 50, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Fitzinger, L. J. (1826) Neue Classification der Reptilien nach ihren naturlichen Verwand-tschaften nebst einer Verwandschaftstafel und einem Verzeichnisse der Reptiliensammlungen des K. K. zoologischen Museums zu Wien. J. G. Heubner, Wien.","Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae (10 th Ed), Laurentii Salva, Holmiae."]}

ORDER Gymnophiona, 1832 Lissamphibians with elongate annulate bodies, lacking limbs and girdles. Based on current understanding of phylogeny, the extant Gymnophiona comprise all descendents of the last common ancestor of, for example, Rhinatrema bivittatum and Caecilia tentaculata., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 44, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863

1. Gegeneophis Peters, 1879 Type species: Epicrium carnosum Beddome, 1870 by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only indotyphlids with the eyes covered by bone. Distribution: India. Content: 11 species (carnosus, danieli, fulleri, goaensis, krishni, madhavai, mhadeiensis, nadkarnii, pareshi, ramaswamii, seshachari)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on pages 51-52, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1879) Uber die Eintheilung der Caecilien und insbesondere uber die Gattungen Rhinatrema und Gymnopis Monatsbericht der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1879, 924 - 943.","Beddome, R. H. (1870) Descriptions of new reptiles from the Madras Presidency. Madras Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 2, 169 - 176."]}

2. Oscaecilia Taylor, 1968 Type species: Caecilia ochrocephala Cope, 1866 by original designation. Diagnosis: The only caeciliids with the eyes covered by bone. Distribution: Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Peru. Content: Nine species (bassleri, elongata, equatorialis, hypereumeces, koepckeorum, ochrocephala, osae, polyzona, zwiefeli)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 46, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Taylor, E. H. (1968) The caecilians of the World. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas."]}

1. Epicrionops Boulenger, 1883 a. Type species: Epicrionops bicolor Boulenger, 1883 a by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only rhinatrematids with long tails (more than 10 postcloacal annuli). Distribution: Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela. Content: eight species: (bicolor, colombianus, lativittatus, marmoratus, niger, parkeri, peruvianus, petersi)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 54, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Boulenger, G. A. (1883 a) Description of the new genus of Coeciliae. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser 5 (11), 202 - 203."]}

ORDER Gymnophiona, 1832 Lissamphibians with elongate annulate bodies, lacking limbs and girdles. Based on current understanding of phylogeny, the extant Gymnophiona comprise all descendents of the last common ancestor of, for example, Rhinatrema bivittatum and Caecilia tentaculata.

2. Geotrypetes Peters, 1880 Type species: Caecilia seraphini Dum��ril, 1859 by original monotypy. Diagnosis: The only dermophiids with the tentacle far forward, below the nostril. Distribution: Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo. Content: Three species (angeli, pseudoangeli, seraphini)., Published as part of Wilkinson, Mark, Mauro, Diego San, Sherratt, Emma & Gower, David J., 2011, A nine-family classification of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona), pp. 41-64 in Zootaxa 2874 on page 46, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.200863, {"references":["Peters, W. (1880) Uber Schadel von zwei Coecilien Hypogeophis rostratus und Hypogeophis seraphini. Sitzung Bericht Geschichte Naturforschung Frankfurt, 1880, 53 - 55.","Dumeril, A. M. C. (1859) Reptiles et poissons de l'Afrique occidentale. Etude precedee de considerations generales sur leur distribution geographique. Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 10, 137 - 268."]}

Doherty-Bone, Thomas M., Ndifon, Roland Kebuh, Mauro, Diego San, Wilkinson, Mark, LeGrand, G. Nono, Gower, David J. (2011): Systematics and ecology of the caecilian Crotaphatrema lamottei (Nussbaum) (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Scolecomorphidae). Journal of Natural History 45 (13-14): 827-841, DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2010.535921, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2010.535921