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The structural inhomogeneities of silicon films embedded within W/Si multilayer mirrors were studied by X-ray reflection, grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). In the diffuse scattering spectra, evidence of laterally and vertically ordered in-layer inhomogeneities was consistently observed. In particular, specific substructures resonant in nature (named here `ridges') were detected. The properties of the ridges were similar to the roughness determined by quasi-Bragg peaks of scattering, which required a high interlayer correlation of particles. The XPS showed the nanocrystalline nature of the Si particles in the amorphous matrix. The geometric characteristics and in-layer and inter-layer correlations of the nanoparticles were determined. In GISAXS imaging, the unusual splitting of the waists between the Bragg sheets into filament structures was observed, whose physical nature cannot yet be explained.

We have measured the absolute intensities of the spectral lines of Kr, Ar, and O ions (CO2gas), which are of interest for reflectometry, microscopy, and lithography in the wavelength range of 10 – 18 nm. We have used pulsed excitation by an Nd : YAG laser with an output wavelengthλ= 1064 nm, a pulse energy of 0.8 J, a pulse duration of 5.2 ns and a pulse repetition rate of 10 Hz. The targets are formed during gas outflow through a pulsed supersonic conical nozzle for an inlet gas pressure of 3.5 bar. A spectrometer based on X-ray multilayer mirrors and its calibration procedure are described in detail. The absolute intensities of the spectral lines of Kr IX (λ= 11.5 nm; number of photons:N= 9.3 × 1012photons pulse−1), Ar VIII (λ= 13.84 nm,N= 3 × 1012photons pulse−1), and O VI (λ= 12.98 nm,N= 5.17 × 1012photons pulse−1). The results are compared with the data obtained for Xe ions under the same experimental conditions at the same wavelengths.

The properties of multilayer Cr/Sc mirrors synthesized at a reduced value of electric power on a magnetron discharge have been studied. Model structural parameters of such mirrors have been found. A record reflection coefficient of 21% has been obtained at a wavelength of 3.12 nm.

We report on the results of development, fabrication, and analysis of broadband Mo/Si multilayer mirrors for spectroheliographs at the KORTES solar observatory, which operate in the spectral bands of 17–21 and 28–33 nm. The advantages of the stack approach are demonstrated. The results of measurements of reflection characteristics of mirrors are considered.

We describe the method for increasing the efficiency of holographic diffraction gratings (HDGs) intended for operation in the X-ray wavelength range. We describe the procedure of processing of HDG surface for reducing the amplitude and roughness of grooves. For reducing the groove amplitude, we have used Xe ions with an energy of 600 eV, while ion polishing was performed with Ar ions having an energy of 800 eV. It is shown that, after ion polishing, the diffraction efficiency of the grating at a wavelength of 4.47 nm increases by almost four times.

The emission spectra of krypton plasma in the range of 8 – 14 nm upon excitation of a pulsed gas jet by 1.06-mm Nd : YAG laser radiation with a pulse energy of 0.85 J, pulse duration of 5.2 ns, and repetition rate of 10 Hz are investigated. The krypton emission spectrum is a wide (8 – 14 nm) band, peaking at 10.3 nm, which is formed by a series of much narrower lines. The observed lines are identified, and the fraction of laser pulse energy converted into the (8 – 14)-nm emission band and emitted into half-space (2πsr) is determined. The maximum conversion efficiency is found to be 21 %. The expected throughputs of lithographic systems with sources based on Sn, Xe, and Kr ions for different wavelengths, corresponding to the emission peaks of ions of these materials, are compared.

The latest experimental results of studying beryllium-containing multilayer mirrors are reviewed. The mirrors are of interest for projection nanolithography, solar astronomy, X-ray microscopy, and other applications. It is shown that for a number of ranges beryllium-containing multilayer mirrors outperform the world analogues in their X-ray optical characteristics.

A method for fabrication of a concave spherical mirror made of crystalline quartz is proposed and X-ray optical properties of the mirror are studied. The radius of curvature is 1630 mm. The shape of the mirror surface is studied using an interferometer with a diffraction reference wave. In the entire processing region, the maximum deviation from the nearest sphere is about 0.2 μm and the rms is 34 nm, so that high quality of imaging is provided with an angular error of about 2″ (angular seconds). Reflection coefficient (about 7%) and lower bound limit of spectral selectivity (λ/δλ ≈ 1775) are determined in the vicinity of a wavelength of λ = 0.834 nm, which is close to the working wavelengths of the MgXII doublet (λ = 0.8418 and 0.8423 nm). Position of the Bragg peak and spectral selectivity remain unchanged upon bending of the crystal mirror within measurement accuracy.

The influence of thermal action on X-ray optics performance and structure of films and transition regions in multilayer Mo/Be mirrors optimized for a reflection maximum in the interval 11.2–11.4 nm at normal incidence has been considered. The annealing temperature reached 300°C and the annealing time was 1 and 4 h. It has been shown that after thermal annealing in vacuum for 1 h at 300°C, the reflection coefficient rises; however, when the annealing time grows to 4 h, it drops. Grains in molybdenum films become finer, and the profiles of transition regions change from exponential to linear. The period of multilayer mirrors has remained the same under all annealing conditions.

We have developed the design and experimentally studied aperiodic and stack broadband Mo/Si mirrors for the purposes of the KORTES project, optimised for uniform reflection in the 17 - 21 nm wavelength range. It is shown that stack structures with an insignificant loss in the reflection coefficient are much more preferable from the point of view of manufacturing and certification, which, in turn, makes it possible to correct the deposition process and to reach the calculated parameters of a multilayer mirror in a small number of iterations.

Aperiodic multilayer mirrors (AMMs) optimized for uniform reflection within the bands of 16.5–21 and 28–33 nm are calculated by the genetic algorithm for the CORTES project. The comparative characteristic of traditional Mo/Si AMMs and beryllium-containing Mo/Be, Mo/Be/Si, Al/Be, and Mg/Be systems is given. It is demonstrated that Mo/Be/Si AMM is more preferable within the wavelength range of 16.5–21 nm, while Mg/Be AMM with a protective aluminum coating is more preferable within the band of 28–33 nm, being two and a half times superior to the corresponding Mo/Si AMM in its reflectivity.

An X-ray optical scheme for studying boron impurities in diamond substrates by X-ray fluorescence analysis is proposed. The scheme is analyzed and the sensitivity of the method to boron impurities in diamond is determined. The main ways of increasing the sensitivity are considered. It is shown that when a target is excited by AlKα radiation a boron impurity of ~20 ppm can be detected. When СKα radiation is used, the sensitivity is limited by the detector operating speed and is 0.07 ppm. The sensitivity of the X-ray optical scheme is 0.004 ppm.

Using the wide-angle and small-angle X-ray diffraction techniques, the Mo density is obtained as a function of the layer thickness in periodic X-ray Mo/Si mirrors synthesized by magnetron sputtering in an argon atmosphere. By the example of a simulated aperiodic multilayer Mo/Si mirror, the necessity to take into account the real density of Mo and the incorrect use of its tabulated densities is demonstrated.

A set of multilayer X-ray mirrors for an upgraded version of the double-mirror monochromator installed on the VEPP-5 synchrotron of the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics is fabricated, its constituent parts are optimized, and its X-ray optical characteristics are studied. Due to the use of seven subbands, for each of which an optimal pair of materials is chosen, the mirror set ensures high reflection coefficients—ranging from 10 to 75%— for a wide range of photon energies from 80 to 3000 eV and wavelengths from 0.413 to 15.48 nm. The principles of optimization of material pairs are reported. For the first time, multilayer mirrors based on the W/Be pair of materials are fabricated and studied.

Broadband Mo/Be multilayer structures were designed for maximum uniform normal-incidence reflectivity in a broad range of 111–138 Å, which lies near and beyond the L2,3 absorption edge of Si. A comparison was made of the capabilities of two classes of aperiodic structures and of so-called “stack” structures, which are composed of several periodic structures with different periods stacked one over the other. Six-stack Mo/Be 80-layer structures were synthesized on concave (R = 1 m) superpolished fused silica substrates. Their absolute reflectivity was measured at 13% – 14% in the 111–138 Å optimization range using a laboratory reflectometer with a laser-plasma radiation source. The normal-incidence reflection spectra of the mirrors were recorded in the configuration of a transmission-grating spectrograph using the slowly varying quasicontinuum of a laser-driven tungsten plasma. Comparing the reflectivity data with the reflection spectra recorded with a CCD permitted estimating a decrease in the detector responsivity beyond the Si L-edge. The broadband normal-incidence multilayer mirrors facilitate the development of a high-resolution imaging spectrograph covering a usable range about the Si L-edge to characterize, for instance, the L-edge fine structures and chemical states. These mirrors will also find use in imaging solar instruments with a high spectral resolution operating aboard a spacecraft and in laboratory instruments for plasma diagnostics.

We describe a laboratory reflectometer developed at the IPM RAS for precision measurements of spectral and angular dependences of the reflection and transmission coefficients of optical elements in a wavelength range of 5–50 nm. The radiation is monochromatised using a high-resolution Czerny–Turner spectrometer with a plane diffraction grating and two spherical collimating mirrors. A toroidal mirror focuses the probe monochromatic beam on a sample. The X-ray source is a highly ionised plasma produced in the interaction of a high-power laser beam with a solid target at an intensity of 1011–1012 W cm–2. To stabilise the emission characteristics, the target executes translatory and rotary motions in such a way that every pulse irradiates a new spot. The short-focus lens is protected from contamination by erosion products with the use of a specially designed electromagnetic system. The samples under study are mounted on a goniometer is accommodated in a dedicated chamber, which provides five degrees of freedom for samples up to 500 mm in diameter and two degrees of freedom for a detector. The sample mass may range up to 10 kg. The X-ray radiation is recorded with a detector composed of a CsI photocathode and two microchannel plates. A similar detector monitors the probe beam intensity. The spectral reflectometer resolution is equal to 0.030 nm with the use of ruled gratings with a density of 900 lines mm–1 (spectral range: 5–20 nm) and to 0.067 nm for holographic gratings with a density of 400 lines mm–1 (spectral range: 10–50 nm). We analyse the contribution of higher diffraction orders to the probe signal intensity and the ways of taking it into account in the measurements. Examples are given which serve to illustrate the reflectometer application to the study of multilayer mirrors and filters.

Microstructural investigation of the Mo/Si nanoscale multilayers (MLs) is essential to design high-reflective nanomirrors. Raman spectroscopy showed existence of silicon layer in the amorphous structure. Small fraction of the nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) phase was found to be embedded in the amorphous silicon (a-Si) matrix. The disorder in a-Si is increased with the decrease in the thickness of silicon layer in the Mo/Si MLs, determined by the increased bond-angle deviation (ΔΘ) of the Si–Si network. The MLs exposed to high-temperature (HT) showed a decrease in the ΔΘ value, which signifies the relaxation of both molecular disorder and residual stress. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the polycrystalline bcc phase of Mo and the formation of intermetallic t-Mo5Si3 phase in the interfaces. This phase is more prominent for higher value of β (thickness ratio of high atomic weight (z) layer to ML period d, i.e. β = dMo/d). Intensity of the Mo (110) plane is decreased for the sample annealed at HT, which is directly related to the degree of amorphization and the formation of intermetallic phases. However, HT annealed Mo/Si showed the growth of Mo (220) planes for higher β value of MLs. Current findings revealed that the disorder in the a-Si and microstructure of the Mo and intermetallic phase depend on the annealing temperature and the β value. The analysis of the intermetallic phase is critical for the development of high reflective mirrors.

A high-resolution laboratory reflectometer designed for operation in the soft x-ray (SXR) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) ranges is described. High spectral resolution, up to 0.028 nm, in a wide spectral range is achieved due to the Czerny-Turner monochromator. A laser plasma generated by irradiating a solid-state target with a focused laser beam (wavelength 1.06 µm, pulse energy 0.5 J, duration 4 ns, and pulse repetition rate 10 Hz) is used as a source of SXR and EUV radiation. The goniometer allows the study of curved optical elements with an aperture up to NA = 0.5 and a diameter of up to 500 mm. The methods providing high efficiency of the optical system and spectral resolution in a wide range of wavelengths are described in detail. The problem of taking into account high orders in the recorded spectra of a laser plasma is discussed. A comparison of the measurement results with the described reflectometer and the optics beamline at the BESSY-II synchrotron is given.

We optimized the parameters of a laser-produced plasma source based on a solid-state Nd: YAG laser (λ = 1.06 nm, pulse duration 4 ns, energy per pulse up to 500 mJ, repetition rate 10 Hz, lens focus distance 45 mm, maximum power density of laser radiation in focus 9 × 1011 W/cm2) and a double-stream Xe/He gas jet to obtain a maximum of radiation intensity around 11 nm wavelength. It was shown that the key factor determining the ionization composition of the plasma is the jet density. With the decreased density, the ionization composition shifts toward a smaller degree of ionization, which leads to an increase in emission peak intensity around 11 nm. We attribute the dominant spectral feature centred near 11 nm originating from an unidentified 4d-4f transition array in Xe+10…+13 ions. The exact position of the peak and the bandwidth of the emission line were determined. We measured the dependence of the conversion efficiency of laser energy into an EUV in-band energy with a peak at 10.82 nm from the xenon pressure and the distance between the nozzle and the laser focus. The maximum conversion efficiency (CE) into the spectral band of 10–12 nm measured at a distance between the nozzle and the laser beam focus of 0.5 mm was CE = 4.25 ± 0.30%. The conversion efficiencies of the source in-bands of 5 and 12 mirror systems at two wavelengths of 10.8 and 11.2 nm have been evaluated; these efficiencies may be interesting for beyond extreme ultraviolet lithography.We optimized the parameters of a laser-produced plasma source based on a solid-state Nd: YAG laser (λ = 1.06 nm, pulse duration 4 ns, energy per pulse up to 500 mJ, repetition rate 10 Hz, lens focus distance 45 mm, maximum power density of laser radiation in focus 9 × 1011 W/cm2) and a double-stream Xe/He gas jet to obtain a maximum of radiation intensity around 11 nm wavelength. It was shown that the key factor determining the ionization composition of the plasma is the jet density. With the decreased density, the ionization composition shifts toward a smaller degree of ionization, which leads to an increase in emission peak intensity around 11 nm. We attribute the dominant spectral feature centred near 11 nm originating from an unidentified 4d-4f transition array in Xe+10…+13 ions. The exact position of the peak and the bandwidth of the emission line were determined. We measured the dependence of the conversion efficiency of laser energy into an EUV in-band energy with a peak at 10.82 nm from the xenon ...

We present the results of investigations of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light emission in the range from 5 to 10 nm. The light source was a pulsed “double-stream” Xe:He gas jet target irradiated by a laser beam with a power density of ∼1011 W/cm2. The radiation spectra were measured with a Czerny-Turner monochromator with a plane diffraction grating. The conversion efficiency of the laser energy into EUV radiation caused by Xe+14…+16 ion emission in the range of 6–8 nm was measured using a calibrated power meter. The conversion efficiency of the laser radiation into EUV in the vicinity of 6.7 nm was (2.17 ± 0.13)% in a 1 nm spectral band. In the spectral band of the real optical system (0.7% for La/B multilayer mirrors) emitted into the half-space, it was (0.1 ± 0.006)%. The results of this study provide an impetus for further research on laser plasma sources for maskless EUV lithography at a wavelength of 6.7 nm.