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Climate change may have important consequences on plant distribution because local environments could change faster than the pace of natural selection and adaptation of wild populations and cultivars of perennial forages. Temperature is a primary factor affecting seed germination and primary heterotrophic growth processes. Medicago sativa (L.) is the most important forage legumes globally. The accelerated breeding of alfalfa cultivars adapted to new ranges of temperature could be necessary under most future climate scenarios. This work aims to explore the genetic diversity of a sample of accessions for responses to temperature during seed germination and seedling heterotrophic growth. Seeds or seedlings were placed in the dark under eight constant temperatures in the range of 5 °C to 40 °C. Germinated seeds were manually counted, while hypocotyl and radicle growth were estimated by using image analysis and curve fitting. Multivariate analyses highlighted links between responses and the origin of accessions. Variability was high, within and between accessions, for all the response variables. Accessions showed significant differences in their non-linear response curves in terms of germinability, germination rates and relative elongation rates. Nevertheless, differences were more noticeable in germination rations and rates compared to seedling heterotrophic growth. Consequently, these could be easier to use as early markers for alfalfa selection and breeding for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonicotinoid insecticides have made possible, for three decades, to protect sugar beet crops against aphids and the viruses they transmit. However, they have been accused of reducing biodiversity, leading the European Union to ban the use of neonicotinoid-coated seeds. The requests for exemptions of use, submitted annually by different member states, might soon no longer be granted. Here, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the available alternatives to neonicotinoids for aphid control in sugar beets, following the PICO framework. The abstracts of 3878 references were consulted to evaluate alternative control methods. Of these, we selected 301 scientific publications, keeping only those which provided indications of treatment efficacy against sugar beet aphids. We identified 75 control strategies (products or methods) as possible alternatives to neonicotinoids. Each control strategy was evaluated based on four criteria: efficacy, durability, applicability and practicability. Using these criteria, we highlight 20 methods or products that have both potential as alternative to neonicotinoids and whose short-term use is feasible. These alternative methods include five synthetic and three natural insecticides, two entomopathogenic fungi, two arthropod natural enemies, organic and mineral oils, two plant defense elicitors, three farming practices and the potential of resistant varieties. Most of them provide important, but arguably insufficient, control of aphids if used alone. However, most of them appear to be complementary and compatible with each other. Therefore, integrating strategies will be needed to maintain beet yields while limiting unintended effects on environment and biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temperature is one the most influential environmental factors for the germination and establishment of grass species. The specific objective of this study was to determine the effects of low constant temperature on the time needed to express the full germination capacity of nondormant seedlots. Fifteen accessions, comprising seven of Lolium perenne L., three of Festuca arundinacea Schreb., three of Dactylis glomerata L. and two of Triticum aestivum L., were evaluated at constant temperatures of 5 and 21 °C. As expected, the germination rates were faster at 21 °C than at 5 °C. Indeed, at 5 °C seeds needed up to twenty-one times longer to reach the maximum germination than when tested at 21 °C. The genotypic variability found for the ratio of germination rates between the two temperatures (i.e., germination rate at 5 °C/germination rate at 21 °C) was much more variable than what is found in the literature for perennial cool-season grasses. On the other hand, in most cases, no significant differences were observed in the germinability (the capacity to germinate) response to 5 °C and 21 °C. Within the four species, twelve of the fifteen studied accessions expressed the same germinability at 5 °C and 21 °C, when given enough time. Only three accessions had final germination percentages higher at 21 °C than at 5 °C. Our results suggest that, in general, nondormant seeds at low temperatures germinate as well as nondormant seeds at near-optimal temperatures, provided they have enough time to express their germination capacity. These findings cast doubts on the validity of conclusions drawn in many studies where germination experiments were performed for a period insufficient to obtain full germination at low temperatures. Another major finding in this work concerns the risk of wrongly estimating germinability at low temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tall fescue is a major species growing in temperate grasslands. It is a cool-season perennial native of Western Europe and used worldwide as forage for its quality and adaptability to various soils and climates. By its effects on germination and seedling growth, temperature affects the recruitment of individuals and, consequently, the genetic diversity of plant communities. Under most climate change scenarios, breeding cultivars adapted to new ranges of temperature will be necessary. Knowing the variability of the responses to temperature by different accessions is an essential first step towards such breeding. In this work, we (i) analyze the intraspecific variability of tall fescue in response to a constant temperature during germination and (ii) quantitatively describe the response curves. A sample of nine, from 128, accessions of tall fescue was evaluated. Four replicates of 100 seeds per accessions were tested for germination in the dark at eight constant temperatures ranging from 5 to 40 °C with increases of 5 °C. The germinability, lag to start and maximum germination rates were estimated. It was observed that the responses of tall fescue accessions were statistically different (p < 0.05). The optimal temperature for maximum germination ranged from 9 °C to 25 °C. Germination was not observed for any accession at 40 °C. The novelty of this work comes from the duration of the sampling period at low temperatures that was longer than in most published papers. Based on the responses to temperature during germination, our findings suggest that a high intraspecific genetic variability exists in tall fescue that merits further exploration. This variability should be useful to breed new cultivars adapted to the new environmental conditions imposed by the ongoing fast climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lolium perenne (L.) is one of the most important species in temperate grasslands. Temperature is a major factor controlling plant development. Breeding L. perenne cultivars adapted to new ranges of temperature could be necessary under most climate change scenarios. However, before any breeding effort in such direction, knowing the intraspecific variability of responses to temperature is essential. Our objective was to analyze a sample of accessions of L. perenne for their response to constant temperature during germination and initial heterotrophic growth. Eight accessions were taken out from a genebank containing 160 accessions. Six accessions were wild populations collected in different places in France and the other two were populations from a selection program. For germination, four replicates of 100 seeds per accession were tested in Petri dishes in the dark at eight constant temperatures, from 5 to 40°C with increases of 5°C. Germination countings were carried out at variable time intervals and durations that depended on treatments. For initial heterotrophic growth analysis, seeds were germinated at 25°C. Sets of 30 seedlings per accession were placed in polypropylene boxes on blotter blue paper and transferred to each one of the eight treatments in the dark. They were pictured at variable time intervals for root and shoot growth measurement by image analysis. Neither seed germination nor heterotrophic growth was observed at 40°C, for any accession. Temperature and time course response surfaces were markedly different between accessions. Equally, maximum germinability and the shape of the response curves to temperature were significantly different between accessions. This means that limited similarities between responses were observed. Furthermore, germination rates followed the non-linear beta function with significant differences between some accessions. These also showed significant differences in their root and shoot growth rate in response to temperature. In general, the relative growth rates of roots and shoots were slow at 5°C, peaked between 25 and 30°C, and showed a sharp reduction afterward. These results reveal, for the first time, high genetic variability within L. perenne germplasm for the response to temperature in the initial life phases. This discovered variability should serve breeders to create perennial ryegrass varieties for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various adaptive mechanisms can ensure that seedlings are established at the most favourable time and place. These mechanisms include seed dormancy i.e., incapacity to germinate in any environment without a specific environmental trigger and inhibition i.e., incapacity to germinate in an unfavourable environment (water availability, temperature: thermoinhibition and light). The objective of this research was to study in the temperate range for germination of forage and turf grass species perennial ryegrass, if the thermal requirements for germination are under genetic controlled and could be selectively bred. Two divergent selections of three cycles were realized on a natural population: one to select for the capacity to germinate at 10°C vs. the impossibility to germinate at 10°C, and one to select for the capacity to germinate at 32°C vs. the impossibility to germinate at 32°C. Seeds of all the lots obtained from the two divergent selections were then germinated at constant temperatures from 5 to 35°C to evaluate their germination ability. Concerning the positive selection, the first cycle of positive selection at 10°C was highly efficient with a very strong increase in the germination percentage. However, afterward no selection effect was observed during the next two cycles of positive selection. By contrast, the positive selection at 32°C was efficient during all cycles with a linear increase of the percentage of germination at 32°C. Concerning the negative selection, we observed only a large positive effect of the first cycle of selection at 10°C. These findings demonstrate that seed thermoinhibition at 10 and 32°C observed in a natural population of perennial ryegrass has a genetic basis and a single recessive gene seems to be involved at 10°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perennial ryegrass is an important forage crop in dairy farming, either for grazing or haying purposes. To further optimise the forage use, this study focused on understanding forage digestibility in the two most important cuts of perennial ryegrass, the spring cut at heading and the autumn cut. In a highly diverse collection of 592 Lolium perenne genotypes, the organic matter digestibility (OMD) and underlying traits such as cell wall digestibility (NDFD) and cell wall components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) were investigated for 2 years. A high genotype × season interaction was found for OMD and NDFD, indicating differences in genetic control of these forage quality traits in spring versus autumn. OMD could be explained by both the quantity of cell wall content (NDF) and the quality of the cell wall content (NDFD). The variability in NDFD in spring was mainly explained by differences in hemicellulose. A 1% increase of the hemicellulose content in the cell wall (HC.NDF) resulted in an increase of 0.81% of NDFD. In autumn, it was mainly explained by the lignin content in the cell wall (ADL.NDF). A 0.1% decrease of ADL.NDF resulted in an increase of 0.41% of NDFD. The seasonal traits were highly heritable and showed a higher variation in autumn versus spring, indicating the potential to select for forage quality in the autumn cut. In a candidate gene association mapping approach, in which 503 genes involved in cell wall biogenesis, plant architecture, and phytohormone biosynthesis and signalling, identified significant quantitative trait loci (QTLs) which could explain from 29 to 52% of the phenotypic variance in the forage quality traits OMD and NDFD, with small effects of each marker taken individually (ranging from 1 to 7%). No identical QTLs were identified between seasons, but within a season, some QTLs were in common between digestibility traits and cell wall composition traits confirming the importance of hemicellulose concentration for spring digestibility and lignin concentration in NDF for autumn digestibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Association studies are of great interest to identify genes explaining trait variation since they deal with more than just a few alleles like classical QTL analyses. They are usually performed using collections representing a wide range of variability but which could present a genetic substructure. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that association studies can be performed using synthetic varieties obtained after several panmictic generations. This demonstration is based on an example of association between the gibberellic acid insensitive gene (GAI) polymorphism and leaf length polymorphism in 'Herbie', a synthetic variety of perennial ryegrass. Methods Leaf growth parameters, consisted of leaf length, maximum leaf elongation rate (LERmax) and leaf elongation duration (LED), were evaluated in spring and autumn on 216 plants of Herbie with three replicates. For each plant, a sequence of 370 bp in GAI was analysed for polymorphism. Results Genetic effect was highly significant for all traits. Broad sense heritabilities were higher for leaf length and LERmax with about 0.7 in each period and 0.5 considering both periods than for LED with about 0.4 in each period and 0.3 considering both periods. GAI was highly polymorphic with an average of 12 bp between two consecutive SNPs and 39 haplotypes in which 9 were more frequent. Linkage disequilibrium declined rapidly with distance with r 2 values lower than 0.2 beyond 150 bp. Sequence polymorphism of GAI explained 8-14% of leaf growth parameter variation. A single SNP explained 4% of the phenotypic variance of leaf length in both periods which represents a difference of 33 mm on an average of 300 mm. Conclusions Synthetic varieties in which linkage disequilibrium declines rapidly with distance are suitable for association studies using the "candidate gene" approach. GAI polymorphism was found to be associated with leaf length polymorphism which was more correlated to LERmax than to LED in Herbie. It is a good candidate to explain leaf length variation in other plant material.

Reduced blue light irradiance is known to enhance leaf elongation rate (LER) in grasses, but the mechanisms involved have not yet been elucidated. We investigated whether leaf elongation response to reduced blue light could be mediated by stomata-induced variations of plant transpiration. Two experiments were carried out on tall fescue in order to monitor LER and transpiration under reduced blue light irradiance. Additionally, LER dynamics were compared with those observed in the response to vapour pressure deficit (VPD)-induced variations of transpiration. Finally, we developed a model of water flow within a tiller to simulate the observed short-term response of LER to various transpiration regimes. LER dramatically increased in response to blue light reduction and then reached new steady states, which remained higher than the control. Reduced blue light triggered a simultaneous stomatal closure which induced an immediate decrease of leaf transpiration. The hydraulic model of leaf elongation accurately predicted the LER response to blue light and VPD, resulting from an increase in the growth-induced water potential gradient in the leaf growth zone. Our results suggest that the blue light signal is sensed by stomata of expanded leaves and transduced to the leaf growth zone through the hydraulic architecture of the tiller. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lucerne (Medicago sativa), a major perennial pasture legume, belongs to a species complex that includes several subspecies with wild and cultivated populations. Stand establishment may be compromised by poor germination. Seed scarification, deterioration and temperature have an impact on germination. The objective of this study was to analyse the genetic diversity of lucerne germination in response to three factors: (1) temperature, with seven constant temperatures ranging from 5 to 40°C, was tested on 38 accessions, (2) seed scarification was tested on the same accessions at 5 and 22°C, (3) seed deterioration was tested on two accessions and two seed lots at the seven temperatures. The germination dynamics of seed lots over time was modelled and three parameters were analysed: germinability (germination capacity), maximum germination rate (maximum% of seeds germinating per time unit), and lag time before the first seed germinates. Seed scarification enhanced germinability at both temperatures and its effect was much higher on falcata and wild sativa accessions. Incomplete loss of the hardseededness trait during domestication and selection is hypothesised, indicating that the introduction of wild material in breeding programmes should be followed by the selection for germinability without scarification. Seed lots with altered germinability had low germination at extreme temperatures, both cold and hot, suggesting that mild temperatures are required to promote germination of damaged seed lots. A large genetic diversity was revealed for germination (both capacity and rate) in response to temperature. All accessions had an optimal germination at 15 or 22°C and a poor germination at 40°C. The sativa varieties and landraces had a high germination from 5 to 34°C while the germination of falcata and the wild sativa accessions were weakened at 5 or 34°C, respectively. These differences are interpreted in terms of adaptation to the climate of their geographical origin regions in order to escape frost or heat/drought risks. These new findings give insights on adaptation and domestication of lucerne in its wide geographic area. They suggest further improvement of germination is needed, especially when introducing wild material in breeding pools to remove scarification requirements and to limit differences in response to temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A great variety of legume species are used for forage production and grown in multi-species grasslands. Despite their close phylogenetic relationship, they display a broad range of morphologies that markedly affect their competitive abilities and persistence in mixtures. Little is yet known about the component traits that control the deployment of plant architecture in most of these species. During the present study, we compared the patterns of shoot organogenesis and shoot organ growth in contrasting forage species belonging to the four morphogenetic groups previously identified in herbaceous legumes (i.e., stolon-formers, rhizome-formers, crown-formers tolerant to defoliation and crown-formers intolerant to defoliation). To achieve this, three greenhouse experiments were carried out using plant species from each group (namely alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, sainfoin, kura clover, red clover, and white clover) which were grown at low density under non-limiting water and soil nutrient availability. The potential morphogenesis of shoots characterized under these conditions showed that all the species shared a number of common morphogenetic features. All complied with a generalized classification of shoot axes into three types (main axis, primary and secondary axes). A common quantitative framework for vegetative growth and development involved: (i) the regular development of all shoot axes in thermal time and a deterministic branching pattern in the absence of stress; (ii) a temporal coordination of organ growth at the phytomer level that was highly conserved irrespective of phytomer position, and (iii) an identical allometry determining the surface area of all the leaves. The species differed in their architecture as a consequence of the values taken by component traits of morphogenesis. Assessing the relationships between the traits studied showed that these species were distinct from each other along two main PCA axes which explained 68% of total variance: the first axis captured a trade-off between maximum leaf size and the ability to produce numerous phytomers, while the second distinguished morphogenetic strategies reliant on either petiole or internode expansion to achieve space colonization. The consequences of this quantitative framework are discussed, along with its possible applications regarding plant phenotyping and modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objective of this work was to describe the dynamics of senescence of field-grown maize from silking to harvest, at both leaf and plant level. At the leaf level, the dynamics of symptoms of senescence were considered on each leaf taken individually and described according to zones from the tip to the base of the leaf lamina. At the whole plant level, foliar ranks were each considered as an entity to describe the time course of senescence. To this end, we use a database built-up from field trials conducted during three consecutive years (1994–1996) and thus undergoing variable meteorological and soil water conditions. Leaf chlorophyll content was estimated using two different methods based on the optical properties of the leaves. In Trial I, chlorophyll estimates were based on leaf optical density measured with a MacBeth TR-924 densitometer. In Trial II and Trial III, chlorophyll estimations were based on measurement using a hand-held Minolta SPAD-502 device. In Trial II and Trial III, chlorophyll fluorescence analyses under filed conditions were performed. These analyses focused on the photosystem II (PSII) maximum efficiency (Fv′/Fm′) parameter in the light-adapted state. Measurements were done with a Waltz PAM-2000 portable fluorometer. We report detailed descriptions of the spatio-temporal dynamics of these indicators of senescence. We found that, after silking, a strong relationship exists between available water and leaf chlorophyll content. Further, the maximum efficiency of PSII decreased faster in maize plants undergoing low available soil water than in irrigated plants. The rank of a leaf is determinant of the time for the beginning of the decline in both chlorophyll content and maximum efficiency of PSII. At plant and leaf level, the onset of senescence was marked by a decrease in chlorophyll content that was not concomitant with a dramatic decrease in the maximum efficiency of PSII. Our analyses suggest that a non-linear functional relationship could exist between these two parameters during monocarpic senescence. In the mean time, the results presented in this paper could be used to refine the senescence related modules in plant and crop models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In monocarpic species such as corn, senescence of leaves is coordinated with that of the whole plant and influenced by the reproductive function. The objective of the present study was to describe the evolution of corn senescence along two axes: (1) the whole-plant axis, where all foliar stages were each considered as an entity, and (2) the foliar axis, where the dynamics of three macroscopic symptoms of senescence was considered on each leaf taken individually, according to zones from the apex to the base of the leaf lamina. From a corn field culture, leaves were sampled or whole plants were submitted to a follow-up, from flowering to harvest. Dynamics of water, dry matter, and chlorophyll contents were different along the leaf as well as between ranking of leaves. Moreover, plant chlorophyll content followed a more complex dynamics than that of water and dry matter. From a follow-up of discoloration along leaves of 15 stems from top to bottom, authors have established functional relationships describing the advance of the senescence front for each foliar rank from 7 to top (rank 15 or 16). This quantitative description can be used directly in crop models as well as structure–function plant models. This would allow estimation of leaf-senescence impact on light-radiation interception and, therefore, on photosynthesis and productivity. Results can also be used for interpretation of reflectance measurements on corn canopies by remote sensing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The canopy structure of grasslands is a major determinant of their use-value, as it affects the quantity and quality of the forage removed when mowed or grazed. The structure of this canopy is determined by individual plant architecture, which is highly sensitive to both environmental variations and management practices such as cutting regimes. In the case of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.), this architectural plasticity may partially be mediated by a self-regulation process, i.e. the actual state of the architecture (e.g. length of the pseudostem) may indirectly control some morphogenetic processes. To test the robustness of this hypothesis, we designed an exploratory model of ryegrass morphogenesis exhibiting this cybernetic behaviour. This functional-structural model is based on the L-system formalism. It was able to capture satisfactorily the major quantitative architectural traits of ryegrass under non-limiting growing conditions and under a cutting constraint. From these simulation results it appears that (i) self-regulation rules could be of practical use to ryegrass modelling, and (ii) when activated in an integrated model, they are not markedly incompatible with observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sorbitol, together with sucrose and starch, is a major final product of photosynthesis in most species of the Rosaceae. However, little is known concerning the factors affecting the carbon fluxes into these three carbohydrates. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of net photosynthetic CO2 assimilation rate (NAR) on primary carbon partitioning between sorbitol, sucrose, starch and other metabolites, and on the kinetic pattern of labelling in mature leaves of peach (Primus persica [L.] Batsch). A pulse-chase labelling experiment was conducted on a group of peach seedlings showing a range of NAR's that were obtained by using five photosynthetic photon flux density treatments. Mature leaves undergoing one of these treatments were subjected to a 4-min pulse of 14CO2 followed by a 2- to 120-min chase under 12CO2. The radioactivity in lipids, proteins and in a residual nonsoluble fraction was negligible. After a 2-min chase the organic ions were strongly labelled, accounting for up to 40% of the total incorporated radioactivity at NAR's below 10.4 µmol CO2 m-2s-1. After a 30-min chase, most label was found in sorbitol, sucrose and starch with very little radioactivity in the ionic fractions. The analysis of the partitioning of the newly-fixed carbon showed that at low NAR the 14C flux was mostly into sorbitol rather than into sucrose (ratio = 2.6) or starch. When the NAR was lower than 6.1 µmol CO2 m-2s-1, starch was lightly labelled. As the NAR increased above 10.4 µmol CO2 m-2s-1 the 14CO2 diverted into starch increased dramatically. This study demonstrates that at low NAR's the newly-fixed CO2 is mainly used for sorbitol synthesis. However, as NAR increases, the participation of sucrose and starch in CO2 partitioning are favoured. These results support the hypothesis that primary carbon partitioning depends on photosynthetic rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Food Safety Authority concluded in February 2018 that " most uses of neonicotinoid insecticides represent a risk to wild bees and honeybees ". In 2016, the French government passed a law banning the use of the five neonicotinoids previously authorized: clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, acetamiprid and thiacloprid. In the framework of an expert assessment conducted by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety to identify possible derogations, we performed a thorough assessment of the available alternatives to the five banned neonicotinoids. For each pest targeted by neonicotinoids use, we identified the main alternative pest management methods, which we then ranked for (i) efficacy for controlling the target pest, (ii) applicability (whether directly useable by farmers or in need of further research and development), (iii) durability (risk of resistance in targeted pests), and (iv) practicability (ease of implementation by farmers). We identified 152 authorized uses of neonicotinoids in France, encompassing 120 crops and 279 pest insect species (or genera). An effective alternative to neonicotinoids use was available in 96% of the 2968 case studies analyzed from the literature (single combinations of one alternative pest control method or product × one target crop plant × one target pest insect). The most common alternative to neonicotinoids (89% of cases) was the use of another chemical insecticide (mostly pyrethroids). However, in 78% of cases, at least one non-chemical alternative method could replace neonicotinoids (e.g. microorganisms, semiochemicals or surface coating). The relevance of non-chemical alternatives to neonicotinoids depends on pest feeding habits. Leaf and flower feeders are easier to control with non-chemical methods, whereas wood and root feeders are more difficult to manage by such methods. We also found that further field studies were required for many promising non-chemical methods before their introduction into routine use by farmers. Our findings, transmitted to policymakers, indicate that non-chemical alternatives to neonicotinoids do exist. Furthermore, they highlight the need to promote these methods through regulation and funding, with a view to reducing pesticide use in agriculture. • Five neonicotinoids were banned in France, which were used to protect 120 crops from 279 pest insect species. • In 96% of cases, neonicotinoids can be replaced by effective and directly useable alternative pest control methods. • In 78% of cases, at least one non-chemical alternative method can replace neonicotinoids. • Leaf and flower feeders are easier to control with non-chemical methods than wood and root feeders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]