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Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) are the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. The primary site of infection for both bacteria is the epithelium of the endocervix in women and the urethra in men; both can also infect the rectum, pharynx and conjunctiva. Ct/Ng co-infections are more common than expected by chance, suggesting Ct/Ng interactions increase susceptibility and/or transmissibility. To date, studies have largely focused on each pathogen individually and models exploring co-infection are limited. We aimed to determine if Ng co-infection influences chlamydial infection and development and we hypothesized that Ng-infected cells are more susceptible to chlamydial infection than uninfected cells. To address this hypothesis, we established an in vitro model of Ct/Ng coinfection in cultured human cervical epithelial cells. Our data show that Ng co-infection elicits an anti-chlamydial effect by reducing chlamydial infection, inclusion size, and subsequent infectivity. Notably, the anti-chlamydial effect is dependent on Ng viability but not extracellular nutrient depletion or pH modulation. Though this finding is not consistent with our hypothesis, it provides evidence that interaction of these bacteria in vitro influences chlamydial infection and development. This Ct/Ng co-infection model, established in an epithelial cell line, will facilitate further exploration into the pathogenic interplay between Ct and Ng. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nectin-1, a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is a [Ca.sub.2+]-independent cell adhesion protein implicated in the organization of E-cadherin-based adherens junctions (AJs) and claudin-based tight junctions (TJs) in epithelial cells. Nectin-1 also regulates cell-cell adhesion and cell polarization in a Cdc42- and Rac-dependent manner. Western blot analyses demonstrated that accumulation of host nectin-1 is decreased by 85 % at 48 hours post-infection (h.p.i.) in Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E-infected HeLa cells. Time-course experiments demonstrated that this decrease was sustained to 60 h.p.i. Nectin-1 downregulation in C. trachomatis-infected cells was prevented by both chloramphenicol exposure and prior inactivation of the chlamydiae with UV light, demonstrating that active C. trachomatis replication was required. Penicillin G-exposure studies demonstrated that nectin-1 accumulation was also altered during persistent infection. Finally, RT-PCR analyses indicated that chlamydial infection did not alter accumulation of any nectin-1 transcripts, demonstrating that nectin-1 accumulation is reduced at a post-transcriptional level. Intesrestingly, N-cadherin-dependent cell-cell junctions can be disrupted by C. trachomatis infection, as reported by Prozialeck et al. (2002). Because interaction of nectin molecules on adjacent cells is essential for AJ formation, these data suggest that C. trachomatis may disrupt AJs, at least in part, by diminishing nectin-1 accumulation. Notably, release of chlamydiae-infected epithelial cells has been observed both in vitro from polarized monolayers and in vivo from tissues, suggesting that chlamydia-modulated downregulation of adhesion molecules and the subsequent disruption of host cell adherence may be involved in chlamydial dissemination or pathogenesis.

Several inducers of chlamydial persistence have been described, including interferon-[gamma], (IFN-[gamma]), IFN-[alpha], IFN-[beta], and turnout necrosis factor-[alpha] (TNF-[alpha]) exposure, and iron, amino acid or glucose deprivation. A tissue-culture model of Chlamydia trachomatis/herpes simplex virus type-2 (HSV-2) co-infection indicates that viral co-infection stimulates the formation of persistent chlamydiae. This study was designed to ascertain whether co-infection-induced persistence is mediated by a previously characterized mechanism. Luminex assays indicate that IFN-[gamma], IFN-[alpha], and TNF-[alpha] are not released from co-infected cells. Semiquantitative RT-PCR studies demonstrate that IFN-[beta], IFN-[gamma], indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, lymphotoxin-[alpha] and inducible nitric oxide synthase are not expressed during co-infection. These data indicate that viral-induced persistence is not stimulated by any persistence-associated cytokine. Supplementation of co-infected cells with excess amino acids, iron-saturated holotransferrin, glucose or a combination of amino acids and iron does not restore chlamydial infectivity, demonstrating that HSV-2-induced persistence is not mediated by depletion of these nutrients. Finally, inclusions within co-infected cells continue to enlarge and incorporate [C.sub.6]-NBD-ceramide, indicating that HSV-2 co-infection does not inhibit vesicular transport to the developing inclusion. Collectively these data demonstrate that co-infection-induced persistence is not mediated by any currently characterized persistence inducer or anti-chlamydial pathway. Previous studies indicate that HSV-2 attachment and/or entry into the host cell is sufficient for stimulating chlamydial persistence, suggesting that viral attachment and/or entry may trigger a novel host pathway which restricts chlamydial development.

Microbial interactions represent an understudied facet of human health and disease. In this study, the interactions that occur between Chlamydia trachomatis and the opportunistic fungal pathogen, Candida albicans were investigated. Candida albicans is a common component of the oral and vaginal microbiota responsible for thrush and vaginal yeast infections. Normally, Candida exist in the body as yeast. However, disruptions to the microbiota create conditions that allow expanded growth of Candida , conversion to the hyphal form, and tissue invasion. Previous studies have shown that a myriad of outcomes can occur when Candida albicans interacts with pathogenic bacteria. To determine if C. trachomatis physically interacts with C. albicans , we incubated chlamydial elementary bodies (EB) in medium alone or with C. albicans yeast or hyphal forms for 1 h. Following incubation, the samples were formaldehyde-fixed and processed for immunofluorescence assays using anti-chlamydial MOMP or anti- chlamydial LPS antibodies. Replicate samples were replenished with culture medium and incubated at 35°C for 0–120 h prior to fixation for immunofluorescence analysis or collection for EB infectivity assays. Data from this study indicates that both C. trachomatis serovar E and C. muridarum EB bind to C. albicans yeast and hyphal forms. This interaction was not blocked by pre-incubation of EB with the Candida cell wall components, mannan or β-glucans, suggesting that EB interact with a Candida cell wall protein or other structure. Bound EB remained attached to C. albicans for a minimum of 5 days (120 h). Infectivity assays demonstrated that EB bound to C. albicans are infectious immediately following binding (0h). However, once bound to C. albicans , EB infectivity decreased at a faster rate than EB in medium alone. At 6h post binding, 40% of EB incubated in medium alone remained infectious compared to only 16% of EB bound to C. albicans. Likewise, pre-incubation of EB with laminarin, a soluble preparation of β-glucan, alone or in combination with other fungal cell wall components significantly decreases chlamydial infectivity in HeLa cells. These data indicate that interactions between EB and C. albicans inhibit chlamydial infectivity, possibly by physically blocking EB interactions with host cell receptors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schoborg, Robert V., Donald B. Hoover, John D. Tompkins, and John C. Hancock. Increased ganglionic responses to substance P in hypertensive rats due to upregulation of [NK.sub.1] receptors. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 279: R1685-R1694, 2000.--Intravenous injection of substance P (SP) increases renal nerve firing and heart rate in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKYs) by stimulating sympathetic ganglia. Blood pressure is increased in SHRs but lowered in WKYs. This study assesses the role of neurokinin-1 ([NK1.sub.1]) receptors in mediating the ganglion actions of SP. Rats for functional studies were anesthetized and then treated with chlorisondamine. Renal nerve, blood pressure, and heart rate responses to intravenous injection of the [NK.sub.1] receptor agonist GR-73632 were similar but less than those to equimolar doses of SP in SHRs. GR-73632 only slightly increased renal nerve firing and heart rate and lowered blood pressure in WKYs. The [NK.sub.1] receptor antagonist GR-82334 (200 nmol/kg iv) blocked the ganglionic actions of GR-73632 and the pressor response to SP in SHRs. It reduced the renal nerve and heart rate responses by 52 and 35%. This suggests that the pressor response to SP is mediated by ganglionic [NK.sub.1] receptors and that [NK.sub.1] receptors also have a prominent role in mediating the renal nerve and heart rate responses to SP. Quantitative autoradiography showed that [NK.sub.1] receptors are more abundant in the superior cervical ganglia of SHRs. RT-PCR showed increased abundance of [NK.sub.1] receptor mRNA in SHRs as well. These observations suggest that the greater ganglionic stimulation caused by SP in SHRs is due to upregulation of [NK.sub.1] receptors. neurokinin-1 receptors; hypertension; sympathetic nervous system; inbred spontaneously hypertensive rats

Altered gut microbial diversity has been associated with several chronic disease states, including heart failure. Stimulation of the vagus nerve, which innervates the heart and abdominal organs, is proving to be an effective therapeutic in heart failure. We hypothesized that cervical vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) could alter fecal flora and prevent aberrations observed in fecal samples from heart failure animals. To determine whether microbial abundances were altered by pressure overload (PO), leading to heart failure and VNS therapy, a VNS pulse generator was implanted with a stimulus lead on either the left or right vagus nerve before creation of PO by aortic constriction. Animals received intermittent, open-loop stimulation or sham treatment, and their heart function was monitored by echocardiography. Left ventricular end-systolic and diastolic volumes, as well as cardiac output, were impaired in PO animals compared with baseline. VNS mitigated these effects. Metagenetic analysis was then performed using 16S rRNA sequencing to identify bacterial genera present in fecal samples. The abundance of 10 genera was significantly altered by PO, 8 of which were mitigated in animals receiving either left- or right-sided VNS. Metatranscriptomics analyses indicate that the abundance of genera that express genes associated with ATP-binding cassette transport and amino sugar/nitrogen metabolism was significantly changed following PO. These gut flora changes were not observed in PO animals subjected to VNS. These data suggest that VNS prevents aberrant gut flora following PO, which could contribute to its beneficial effects in heart failure patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted pathogen, but more than 70% of patients fail to seek treatment due to the asymptomatic nature of these infections. Women suffer from numerous complications from chronic chlamydial infections, which include pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility. We previously demonstrated in culture that host cell nectin-1 knockdown significantly reduced chlamydial titers and inclusion size. Here, we sought to determine whether nectin-1 was required for chlamydial development in vivo by intravaginally infecting nectin-1-/- mice with Chlamydia muridarum and monitoring chlamydial shedding by chlamydial titer assay. We observed a significant reduction in chlamydial shedding in female nectin-1-/- mice compared to nectin-1+/+ control mice, an observation that was confirmed by PCR. Immunohistochemical staining in mouse cervical tissue confirmed that there are fewer chlamydial inclusions in Chlamydia-infected nectin-1-/- mice. Notably, anorectal chlamydial infections are becoming a substantial health burden, though little is known regarding the pathogenesis of these infections. We therefore established a novel male murine model of rectal chlamydial infection, which we used to determine whether nectin-1 is required for anorectal chlamydial infection in male mice. In contrast to the data from vaginal infection, no difference in rectal chlamydial shedding was observed when male nectin-1+/+ and nectin-1-/- mice were compared. Through the use of these two models, we have demonstrated that nectin-1 promotes chlamydial infection in the female genital tract but does not appear to contribute to rectal infection in male mice. These models could be used to further characterize tissue and sex related differences in chlamydial infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia trachomatis and Herpes Simplex Virus-2 (HSV-2) genital tract co-infections have been reported in humans and studied in vitro but the clinical consequences are unknown. Limited epidemiologic evidence suggests that these co-infections could be more severe than single infections of either pathogen, but the host-pathogen interactions during co-infection remain uncharacterized. To determine whether disease progression and/or pathogen shedding differs between singly-infected and super-infected animals, we developed an in vivo super-infection model in which female BALB/c mice were vaginally infected with Chlamydia muridarum (Cm) followed later by HSV-2. Pre-infection with Chlamydia 3 or 9 days prior to HSV-2 super-infection conferred significant protection from HSV-2-induced neurologic disease and significantly reduced viral recovery compared to HSV-2 singly-infected controls. Neither protection from mortality nor reduced viral recovery were observed when mice were i) super-infected with HSV-2 on day 27 post Cm; ii) infected with UV-irradiated Cm and super-infected with HSV-2; or iii) azithromycin-treated prior to HSV-2 super-infection. Therefore, protection from HSV-2-induced disease requires active infection with viable chlamydiae and is not observed after chlamydial shedding ceases, either naturally or due to antibiotic treatment. Thus, Chlamydia-induced protection is transient and requires the continued presence of chlamydiae or their components. These data demonstrate that chlamydial pre-infection can alter progression of subsequent HSV-2 infection, with implications for HSV-2 transmission from co-infected humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persistence, more recently termed the chlamydial stress response, is a viable but non-infectious state constituting a divergence from the characteristic chlamydial biphasic developmental cycle. Damage/danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are normal intracellular components or metabolites that, when released from cells, signal cellular damage/lysis. Purine metabolite DAMPs, including extracellular ATP and adenosine, inhibit chlamydial development in a species-specific manner. Viral co-infection has been shown to reversibly abrogate Chlamydia inclusion development, suggesting persistence/chlamydial stress. Because viral infection can cause host cell DAMP release, we hypothesized DAMPs may influence chlamydial development. Therefore, we examined the effect of extracellular ATP, adenosine, and cyclic AMP exposure, at 0 and 14 hours post infection, on C. pecorum and C. trachomatis serovar E development. In the absence of de novo host protein synthesis, exposure to DAMPs immediately post or at 14 hours post infection reduced inclusion size; however, the effect was less robust upon 14 hours post infection exposure. Additionally, upon exposure to DAMPs immediately post infection, bacteria per inclusion and subsequent infectivity were reduced in both Chlamydia species. These effects were reversible, and C. pecorum exhibited more pronounced recovery from DAMP exposure. Aberrant bodies, typical in virus-induced chlamydial persistence, were absent upon DAMP exposure. In the presence of de novo host protein synthesis, exposure to DAMPs immediately post infection reduced inclusion size, but only variably modulated chlamydial infectivity. Because chlamydial infection and other infections may increase local DAMP concentrations, DAMPs may influence Chlamydia infection in vivo, particularly in the context of poly-microbial infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interaction of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) glycoprotein D (gD) with the host cell surface during Chlamydia trachomatis/HSV co-infection stimulates chlamydiae to become persistent. During viral entry, gD interacts with one of 4 host co-receptors: HVEM (herpes virus entry mediator), nectin-1, nectin-2 and 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate. HVEM and nectin-1 are high-affinity entry receptors for both HSV-1 and HSV-2. Nectin-2 mediates HSV-2 entry but is inactive for HSV-1, while 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate facilitates HSV-1, but not HSV-2, entry. Western blot and RT-PCR analyses demonstrate that HeLa and HEC-1B cells express nectin-1 and nectin-2, but not HVEM. Because both HSV-1 and HSV-2 trigger persistence, these data suggest that nectin-1 is the most likely co-receptor involved. Co-infections with nectin-1 specific HSV-1 mutants stimulate chlamydial persistence, as evidenced by aberrant body (AB) formation and decreased production of elementary bodies (EBs). These data indicate that nectin-1 is involved in viral-induced chlamydial persistence. However, inhibition of signal transduction molecules associated with HSV attachment and entry does not rescue EB production during C. trachomatis/HSV-2 co-infection. HSV attachment also does not activate Cdc42 in HeLa cells, as would be expected with viral stimulated activation of nectin-1 signaling. Additionally, immunofluorescence assays confirm that HSV infection decreases nectin-1 expression. Together, these observations suggest that gD binding-induced loss of nectin-1 signaling negatively influences chlamydial growth. Chlamydial infection studies in nectin-1 knockdown (NKD) HeLa cell lines support this hypothesis. In NKD cells, chlamydial inclusions are smaller in size, contain ABs, and produce significantly fewer infectious EBs compared to C. trachomatis infection in control HeLa cells. Overall, the current study indicates that the actions of host molecule, nectin-1, are required for successful C. trachomatis development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia trachomatis, the most common bacterial sexually transmitted disease agent worldwide, enters a viable, non-dividing and non-infectious state (historically termed persistence and more recently referred to as the chlamydial stress response) when exposed to penicillin G in culture. Notably, penicillin G-exposed chlamydiae can reenter the normal developmental cycle upon drug removal and are resistant to azithromycin-mediated killing. Because penicillin G is less frequently prescribed than other β-lactams, the clinical relevance of penicillin G-induced chlamydial persistence/stress has been questioned. The goal of this study was to determine whether more commonly used penicillins also induce C. trachomatis serovar E persistence/stress. All penicillins tested, as well as clavulanic acid, induced formation of aberrant, enlarged reticulate bodies (RB) (called aberrant bodies or AB) characteristic of persistent/stressed chlamydiae. Exposure to the penicillins and clavulanic acid also reduced chlamydial infectivity by >95%. None of the drugs tested significantly reduced chlamydial unprocessed 16S rRNA or genomic DNA accumulation, indicating that the organisms were viable, though non-infectious. Finally, recovery assays demonstrated that chlamydiae rendered essentially non-infectious by exposure to ampicillin, amoxicillin, carbenicillin, piperacillin, penicillin V, and clavulanic acid recovered infectivity after antibiotic removal. These data definitively demonstrate that several commonly used penicillins induce C. trachomatis persistence/stress at clinically relevant concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydiae may exist at the site of infection in an alternative replicative form, called the aberrant body (AB). ABs are produced during a viable but non-infectious developmental state termed “persistence” or “chlamydial stress.” As persistent/stressed chlamydiae: (i) may contribute to chronic inflammation observed in diseases like trachoma; and (ii) are more resistant to current anti-chlamydial drugs of choice, it is critical to better understand this developmental stage. We previously demonstrated that porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) co-infection induced Chlamydia pecorum persistence/stress in culture. One critical characteristic of persistence/stress is that the chlamydiae remain viable and can reenter the normal developmental cycle when the stressor is removed. Thus, we hypothesized that PEDV-induced persistence would be reversible if viral replication was inhibited. Therefore, we performed time course experiments in which Vero cells were C. pecorum/PEDV infected in the presence of cycloheximide (CHX), which inhibits viral but not chlamydial protein synthesis. CHX-exposure inhibited PEDV replication, but did not inhibit induction of C. pecorum persistence at 24 h post-PEDV infection, as indicated by AB formation and reduced production of infectious EBs. Interestingly, production of infectious EBs resumed when CHX-exposed, co-infected cells were incubated 48–72 h post-PEDV co-infection. These data demonstrate that PEDV co-infection-induced chlamydial persistence/stress is reversible and suggest that this induction (i) does not require viral replication in host cells; and (ii) does not require de novo host or viral protein synthesis. These data also suggest that viral binding and/or entry may be required for this effect. Because the PEDV host cell receptor (CD13 or aminopeptidase N) stimulates cellular signaling pathways in the absence of PEDV infection, we suspect that PEDV co-infection might alter CD13 function and induce the chlamydiae to enter the persistent state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Nectin-1 is an adhesion protein implicated in the organization of adherens junctions and tight junctions in epithelial cells. Previous studies in our laboratory demonstrated that nectin-1 accumulation was significantly decreased in Chlamydia trachomatis-infected HeLa cells. In the present study, Western blot analyses indicated that nectin-1 down-regulation was C. trachomatis concentration-dependent. The half-life of nectin-1 was also greatly diminished in C. trachomatis-infected cells compared to that observed in mock-infected cells, indicating that nectin-1 was likely down-regulated post-translationally. The chlamydia-secreted protease CPAF is known to degrade several important host proteins; CPAF expression within infected cells correlated with the time-dependent cleavage of nectin-1. Notably, CPAF proteolytic activity is inhibited by lactacystin but not by the proteosome inhibitor MG132. In vivo inhibition experiments demonstrated that nectin-1 down-regulation was blocked by lactacystin exposure. In contrast, MG132 had no effect. Finally, cell-free cleavage assays demonstrated that functional recombinant GST-CPAFwt protein degrades nectin-1. This degradation was blocked by lactacystin, as previously observed in vivo. Collectively, these results indicate that nectin-1 is degraded by CPAF in C. trachomatis-infected cells, a novel strategy that chlamydiae may use to aid their dissemination. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that co-infections of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and Chlamydia trachomatis occur in vivo. Data from a tissue culture model of C. trachomatis/HSV-2 co-infection indicate that viral co-infection stimulates the formation of persistent chlamydiae. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) analyses demonstrated that in both HeLa and HEC-1B cells, co-infection caused developing chlamydiae to exhibit swollen, aberrantly shaped reticulate bodies (RBs), characteristically observed in persistence. Additionally, HSV-2 co-infection suppressed production of infectious chlamydial elementary bodies (EBs) in both host cell types. Co-infection with HSV type 1 (HSV-1) produced similar morphologic alterations and abrogated infectious EB production. These data indicate that virus-induced chlamydial persistence was neither host cell- nor virus strain-specific. Purification of crude HSV-2 stocks demonstrated that viral particles were required for coinfection-induced chlamydial persistence to occur. Finally, co-infection with either UV-inactivated, replication-incompetent virus or replication-competent HSV-2 in the presence of cyclohexamide reduced chlamydial infectivity without altering chlamydial genomic DNA accumulation. These data demonstrate that productive viral replication is not required for the induction of chlamydial persistence and suggest that HSV attachment and entry can provide the necessary stimulus to alter C. trachomatis development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown that double infection with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and Chlamydia trachomatis occurs in vivo. We hypothesized that co-infection would alter replication of these agents. To test this hypothesis, HeLa cells were infected with C. trachomatis serovar E, followed 24 h later by HSV-2 strain 333. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) analyses indicated that, by 10 h after HSV addition, reticulate bodies (RBs) in co-infected cells were swollen, aberrantly shaped and electron-lucent. In infectious titre assays, HSV-2 co-infection abrogated production of infectious chlamydial progeny. Western blot analyses indicated that accumulation of chlamydial major outer membrane protein (MOMP) was decreased by HSV co-infection while accumulation of chlamydial heat-shock protein 60-1 (HSP60-1) was increased. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments indicated that chlamydial genome copy number was unaltered by HSV-2 superinfection. Semi-quantitative, reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) experiments demonstrated that levels of chlamydial groEL, ftsK, ftsW, dnaA and unprocessed 16S rRNA transcripts were not changed by HSV-2 super-infection. These data indicate that HSV-2 superinfection drives chlamydia into a viable but non-cultivable state, which is the hallmark of persistence. Because chlamydial HSP60-1 has been associated with immunopathology in vivo, these results also suggest that disease severity might be increased in co-infected individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus (CAEV) genome encodes three structural (gag, pol, and env) and three accessory (rev, tat, and vif) genes. The Rev-C protein regulates Gag, Pol and Env expression by transporting their mRNAs to the cytoplasm. Rev trans-activation requires binding of Rev to an RNA structure called the Rev Response Element (RRE-C). Previous mutational analyses have shown that two domains of Rev are required for its function. The basic domain mediates RRE binding and multimer formation, and the nuclear export signal (NES) mediates trans-activation. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that Rev-C N-terminal deletion mutants bind the RRE less avidly than does wildtype Rev. As a result, it was hypothesized that an additional domain located in the N-terminal exon of Rev-C was required for optimal RRE binding. To test this hypothesis, Rev-C alanine scanning mutants were generated and in vitro RRE binding assays were performed. Alteration of Rev-C amino acids K13, E14, N15, V19, T20, M21 and R27 dramatically decreased affinity for RRE-C. These data demonstrate that Rev-C N-terminal amino acids are required for optimal RRE-C binding and suggest that a third functional domain exists within the N-terminus of Rev-C. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) is a lentivirus that is closely related to visna virus and more distantly related to the human lentivirus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1). The CAEV genome contains several small open reading frames (ORFs) that encode viral regulatory proteins. One of these non-structural proteins, Rev-C, is required for cytoplasmic transport of viral un/incompletely spliced mRNAs and efficient viral replication. In HIV-1 and visna virus, Rev is responsible for the temporal shift from non-structural protein synthesis to synthesis of structural proteins that is observed during the viral infectious cycle. Since it encodes a Rev protein, CAEV would be predicted to exhibit a similar temporal shift in gene expression during its replicative cycle. Immunoprecipitation analysis of 35S-pulse labeled, CAEV-infected goat synovial membrane (GSM) cells indicates that Rev-C is more abundant than is Gag at 12 h post-infection (PI); at later times PI Gag predominates. Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) experiments using nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA from CAEV-infected GSM cells indicates that the viral unspliced gag mRNA accumulates significantly in the cytoplasm only after Rev is detected. These data indicate that a temporal shift from viral non-structural to structural gene expression occurs in CAEV infected GSM cells. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Focuses on a study which assessed the role of neurokinin-1 receptors in mediating the ganglion actions of substance P (SP) in rats. Details on SP; Materials and methods; Results of the study.

The author discusses the role of viable but non-infectious developmental forms in chlamydial biology. One of the authors explores the unique biphasic developmental cycle which characterized by infectious but metabolically less-active elementary body (EB). The authors also recommends azithromycin and tetracycline/doxycycline as first-line antibiotics to treat genital chlamydial infections.

Chlamydia trachomatis /HSV-2 vaginal co-infections are seen clinically, suggesting that these sexually transmitted pathogens may interact. We previously established an intravaginal Chlamydia muridarum /HSV-2 super-infection model and observed that chlamydial pre-infection protects mice from a subsequent lethal HSV-2 challenge. However, the mechanism of protection remains unknown. The type I interferon, IFN-β, binds to the type I interferon receptor (IFNR), elicits a host cellular antiviral response and inhibits HSV replication in vitro and in vivo. Previous studies have demonstrated that C. muridarum infection stimulates genital tract (GT) IFN-β production; therefore, we hypothesized that chlamydial pre-infection protects mice from HSV-2 challenge via the IFN-β/IFNR-induced antiviral response. To test this prediction, we quantified IFN-β levels in vaginal swab samples. Detection of IFN-β in C. muridarum singly infected, but not in mock-infected animals, prompted the use of the super-infection model in IFNR knockout (IFNR−/−) mice. We observed that C. muridarum pre-infection reduces HSV-2-induced mortality by 40% in wild-type mice and by 60% IFNR−/− mice. Severity of HSV-2 disease symptoms and viral shedding was also similarly reduced by C. muridarum pre-infection. These data indicate that, while chlamydial infection induces GT production of IFN-β, type I IFN-induced antiviral responses are likely not required for the observed protective effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the Yersinia pestis, a causative agent of bubonic plague, excrete L-aspartic acid at the expense of exogenous L-glutamic acid during expression of the low-calcium response. It discusses that the results of enzymic analysis provided suggest that a previously defined deficiency of aspartese (AspA) accounts for the phenomenon rather than an elevated oxaloacetate pool. It infers that the only known distinction between most sequenced isolates of aspA from Y. A study on the Yersinia pestis is presented.

Petunia hybrida and Citrus paradisi have significantly different flavonoid accumulation patterns. Petunia sp. tend to accumulate flavonol glycosides and anthocyanins while Citrus paradisi is known for its accumulation of flavanone diglycosides. One possible point of regulation of flavanone metabolism is flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H) expression. To test whether this is a key factor in the different flavanone usage by Petunia hybrida and Citrus paradisi, F3H mRNA expression in seedlings of different developmental stages was measured using semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Primers were designed to conserved regions of F3H and used to amplify an approximately 350 bp segment for quantitation by PhosphorImaging. Primary leaves of 32 day old grapefruit seedlings and a grapefruit flower bud had the highest levels of F3H mRNA expression. Petunia seedlings had much lower levels of F3H mRNA expression relative to grapefruit. The highest expression in petunia was in primary leaves and roots of 65 day old seedlings. These results indicate that preferential use of naringenin for production of high levels of flavanone glycosides in young grapefruit leaves cannot be attributed to decreased F3H mRNA expression. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are the most frequently reported agents of bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide. Nonetheless, C. trachomatis/N. gonorrhoeae coinfection remains understudied. C. trachomatis/N. gonorrhoeae coinfections are more common than expected by chance, suggesting C. trachomatis/N. gonorrhoeae interaction, and N. gonorrhoeae infection may reactivate genital chlamydial shedding in women with latent (quiescent) chlamydial infection. We hypothesized that N. gonorrhoeae would reactivate latent genital Chlamydia muridarum infection in mice. Two groups of C. muridarum-infected mice were allowed to transition into genital latency. One group was then vaginally inoculated with N. gonorrhoeae; a third group received N. gonorrhoeae alone. C. muridarum and N. gonorrhoeae vaginal shedding was measured over time in the coinfected and singly infected groups. Viable C. muridarum was absent from vaginal swabs but detected in rectal swabs, confirming C. muridarum genital latency and consistent with the intestinal tract as a C. muridarum reservoir. C. muridarum inclusions were observed in large intestinal, but not genital, tissues during latency. Oviduct dilation was associated with C. muridarum infection, as expected. Contradicting our hypothesis, N. gonorrhoeae coinfection did not reactivate latent C. muridarum vaginal shedding. In addition, latent C. muridarum infection did not modulate recovery of vaginal viable N. gonorrhoeae. Evidence for N. gonorrhoeae-dependent increased C. muridarum infectivity has thus not been demonstrated in murine coinfection, and the ability of C. muridarum coinfection to potentiate N. gonorrhoeae infectivity may depend on actively replicating vaginal C. muridarum. The proportion of mice with increased vaginal neutrophils (PMNs) was higher in N. gonorrhoeae-infected than in C. muridarum-infected mice, as expected, while that of C. muridarum/N. gonorrhoeae-coinfected mice was intermediate to the singly infected groups, suggesting latent C. muridarum murine infection may limit PMN response to subsequent N. gonorrhoeae infection. IMPORTANCE Our work builds upon the limited understanding of C. muridarum/N. gonorrhoeae coinfection. Previously, N. gonorrhoeae infection of mice with acute (actively replicating) vaginal C. muridarum infection was shown to increase recovery of viable vaginal N. gonorrhoeae and vaginal PMNs, with no effect on C. muridarum vaginal shedding (R. A. Vonck et al., Infect Immun 79:1566-1577, 2011). It has also been shown that chlamydial infection of human and murine PMNs prevents normal PMN responses, including the response to N. gonorrhoeae (K. Rajeeve et al., Nat Microbiol 3:824-835, 2018). Our findings show no effect of latent genital C. muridarum infection on the recovery of viable N. gonorrhoeae, in contrast to the previously reported effect of acute C. muridarum infection, and suggesting that acute versus latent C. muridarum infection may have distinct effects on PMN function in mice. Together, these studies to date provide evidence that Chlamydia/N. gonorrhoeae synergistic interactions may depend on the presence of replicating Chlamydia in the genital tract, while chlamydial effects on vaginal PMNs may extend beyond acute infection., Competing Interests: The authors declare a conflict of interest. The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Department of Veterans Affairs, the Department of Defense, the Uniformed Services University, or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) is an inflammatory transcription factor that plays an important role in the host immune response to infection. The potential for chlamydiae to activate NFκB has been an area of interest, however most work has focused on chlamydiae impacting human health. Given that inflammation characteristic of chlamydial infection may be associated with severe disease outcomes or contribute to poor overall fitness in farmed animals, we evaluated the ability of porcine chlamydiae to induce NFκB activation in vitro . C. pecorum infection induced both NFκB nuclear translocation and activation at 2 hours post infection (hpi), an effect strongly enhanced by suppression of host de novo protein synthesis. C. suis and C. trachomatis showed less capacity for NFκB activation compared to C. pecorum , suggesting a species-specific variation in NFκB activation. At 24 hpi, C. pecorum induced significant NFκB activation, an effect not abolished by penicillin (beta lactam)-induced chlamydial stress. C. pecorum -dependent secretion of interleukin 6 was also detected in the culture supernatant of infected cells at 24 hpi, and this effect, too, was unchanged by penicillin-induced chlamydial stress. Taken together, these results suggest that NFκB participates in the early inflammatory response to C. pecorum and that stressed chlamydiae can promote inflammation.