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Oxidative carbene organocatalysis, which proceeds via single electron transfer (SET) pathways, has been limited by the moderately reducing properties of deprotonated Breslow intermediates BI - s derived from thiazol-2-ylidene 1 and 1,2,4-triazolylidene 2 . Using computational methods, we assess the redox potentials of BI - s based on ten different types of known stable carbenes and report our findings concerning the key parameters influencing the steps of the catalytic cycle. From the calculated values of the first oxidation potential of BI - s derived from carbenes 1 to 10 , it appears that, apart from the diamidocarbene 7 , all the others are more reducing than thiazol-2-ylidene 1 and the 1,2,4-triazolylidene 2 . We observed that while the reducing power of BI - s significantly decreases with increasing solvent polarity, the redox potential of the oxidant can increase at a greater rate, thus facilitating the reaction. The cation, associated with the base, also plays an important role when a nonpolar solvent is used; large and weakly coordinating cations such as Cs + are beneficial. The radical-radical coupling step is probably the most challenging step due to both electronic and steric constraints. Based on our results, we predict that mesoionic carbene 3 and abnormal NHC 4 are the most promising candidates for oxidative carbene organocatalysis.

An expedient access to the first optically pure ruthenium complexes containing C 1 -symmetric cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene ligands is reported. They demonstrate excellent catalytic performances in asymmetric olefin metathesis with high enantioselectivities (up to 92% ee). Preliminary mechanistic insights provided by density functional theory models highlight the origin of the enantioselectivity.

Many organic and main-group compounds, usually acids or bases, can accelerate chemical reactions when used in substoichiometric quantities, a process known as organocatalysis. In marked contrast, very few of these compounds are able to activate carbon monoxide, and until now, none of them could catalyze its chemical transformation, a classical task for transition metals. Herein we report that a stable singlet ambiphilic carbene activates CO and catalytically promotes the carbonylation of an o -quinone into a cyclic carbonate. These findings pave the way for the discovery of metal-free catalyzed carbonylation reactions.

The popularity of NHCs in transition metal catalysis has prompted the development of chiral versions as electron-rich neutral stereodirecting ancillary ligands for enantioselective transformations. Herein we demonstrate that cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) ligands can also engage in asymmetric transformations, thereby expanding the toolbox of available chiral carbenes., (This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019.)

The coordination of Ge 9 Zintl clusters at (carbene)Cu I moieties is explored, and the complexes [(CAAC)Cu] 2 [η 3 -Ge 9 {Si(TMS) 3 } 2 ] (1), (CAAC)Cu[η 3 -Ge 9 {Si(TMS) 3 } 3 ] (2), and (MIC)Cu[η 3 -Ge 9 {Si(TMS) 3 } 3 ] (3) are compared with their known N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) derivatives (A and B), where CAAC = cyclic (alkyl)amino carbene, MIC = mesoionic carbene, and TMS = trimethylsilane. In analogy to the NHC derivatives, the synthesis of 1-3 proceeds by single-step reactions of (CAAC)CuCl or (MIC)CuCl with the [Ge 9 R 2 ] 2- and [Ge 9 R 3 ] - [R = Si(TMS) 3 ] cluster ligands, respectively, and yields complexes of (carbene)Cu I (carbene = CAAC, MIC) moieties exhibiting η 3 -coordination modes of the Ge 9 deltahedron to the Cu atom. In 1, [Ge 9 R 2 ] 2- acts as a η 3 -bridging unit for two (CAAC)Cu I moieties, and 2 and 3 feature single (carbene)Cu I (CAAC and MIC) fragments η 3 -connected to [Ge 9 R 3 ] - units. Analysis of the bond lengths in comparison with known examples shows a bond expansion within the coordinated Ge 3 triangular faces for all (carbene)Cu I Ge 9 complexes (carbene = NHC, MIC, CAAC). All compounds are characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffractometry, NMR spectroscopy [ 1 H, 13 C{ 1 H}, and 29 Si{ 1 H}], electrospray ionization mass spectometry, elemental analysis (C, H, and N), and for the first time also by IR and Raman investigations (for 2 and 3). The new complexes add to the known NHC derivatives and extend the exploration of Ge 9 clusters with carbene ligands at Cu I atoms.

Free borylenes (R-B:) have only been spectroscopically characterized in the gas phase or in matrices at very low temperatures. However, in recent years, a few mono- and bis(Lewis base)-stabilized borylenes have been isolated. In both of these compounds the boron atom is in the formal oxidation state +I which contrasts with classical organoboron derivatives wherein the element is in the +III oxidation state. Mono(Lewis base)-stabilized borylenes are isoelectronic with singlet carbenes, and their reactivity mimics to some extent that of transition metals. They can activate small molecules, such as H 2 , and coordinate an additional ligand; in other words, they are boron metallomimics. Bis(Lewis base)borylene adducts are isoelectronic with amines and phosphines. In contrast to boranes, which act as electron acceptors and thus Lewis acids, they are electron-rich and act as ligands for transition metals., (© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Discovered in 2005, cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (CAACs) are among the most nucleophilic (σ donating) and also electrophilic (π-accepting) stable carbenes known to date. These properties allow them to activate a variety of small molecules and enthalpically strong bonds, to stabilize highly reactive main-group and transition-metal diamagnetic and paramagnetic species, and to bind strongly to metal centers, which gives rise to very robust catalysts. The most important results published up to the end of 2013 are briefly summarized, while the majority of this Review focuses on findings reported within the last three years., (© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

A straightforward strategy allows for the synthesis of storable bicyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (BICAACs), which feature enhanced σ-donating and π-accepting properties compared to monocyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (CAACs). Due to the bicyclo[2.2.2]octane skeleton, the steric environment around the carbene center is different from that of CAACs and similar to that observed in classical N-heterocyclic carbenes. The different electronic properties of BICAACs as compared to CAACs allow for ligand exchange reactions not only at a metal center, but also at main group elements.

Although BH 3 simply coordinates the endocyclic P of (phospholidino)phosphaketene 1 Dipp , the bulkier B(C 6 F 5 ) 3 gives rise to a zwitterionic diphosphirenium, which is a novel type of 2π-electron aromatic system as shown by the calculated NICS values. While the reaction of 1 Dipp with Na[PCO(dioxane) x ] is unselective, the same reaction with the sterically bulky (phospholidino)phosphaketene 1 Ar** [Ar** = 2,6-bis[di(4- tert -butylphenyl)methyl]-4-methylphenyl selectively affords a sodium bridged dimer containing a hitherto unknown λ 3 ,λ 5 ,λ 3 -triphosphete core. The latter formally results from "P - " addition to a 1,3-P/C-dipole. Similarly, adamantyl isonitrile adds to 1 Dipp giving a 4-membered phosphacycle. In contrast to 1 , the phosphaketene derived from the electrophilic diazaphospholidine-4,5-dione is unstable and reacts with a second molecule of Na[PCO(dioxane) x ] to afford a 1,3,4-oxadiphospholonide derivative.

LCuOTf complexes [L = cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (CAACs) or N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs)] selectively promote the dehydrogenative borylation of C(sp)-H bonds at room temperature. It is shown that σ,π-bis(copper) acetylide and copper hydride complexes are the key catalytic species.

A versatile methodology, involving readily available starting materials, allows for the synthesis of stable hemilabile bidentate cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (CAACs) featuring alkene, ether, amine, imine, and phosphine functionalities. The stability of the free carbenes has been exploited for the synthesis of copper(I) and gold(I) complexes. It is shown that the pendant imine moiety stabilizes the gold(III) oxidation state and enables the C-C bond oxidative addition of biphenylene to the corresponding cationic gold(I) complex. The latter and the corresponding copper(I) complex show high catalytic activity for the hydroarylation of α-methylstyrene with N,N-dimethylaniline, and the copper(I) complex promotes the anti-Markovnikov hydrohydrazination of phenyl acetylene with high selectivity.

Sodium phosphaethynolate reacts with [MCl(PDI)] (M = Co, Ir; PDI = pyridinediimine) to give metallaphosphaketenes, which in the case of iridium rearranges into a dimetalladiphosphene, via CO migration from phosphorus to the metal. Two different bonding modes of the PCO anion to CAAC-coinage metal complexes [CAAC: cyclic (alkyl)(amino)(carbene)] are reported, one featuring a strong Au-P bond and the other an η 2 coordination to copper. The gold complex appears to be mostly unreactive whereas the copper complex readily reacts with various organic substrates. A completely free PCO anion was structurally characterized as the [Cu(L a ) 2 ] + (OCP) - salt. It results from the simple displacement of the PCO unit of the cationic (CAAC)Cu(PCO) complex by a second equivalent of CAAC.

The one-electron reduction of a cationic (allenylidene)[cyclic(alkyl) (amino)carbene]gold(i) complex leads to the corresponding neutral, paramagnetic, formally gold(0) complex. DFT calculations reveal that the spin density of this highly robust coinage metal complex is mainly located on the allenylidene fragment, with only 1.8 and 3.1% on the gold center and the CAAC ligand, respectively. In addition, the first homoleptic bis(allenylidene)gold(i) complex has been prepared and fully characterized.

Cyclic (amino)(aryl)carbenes (CAArCs) result from the replacement of the alkyl substituent of cyclic (alkyl)(amino) carbenes (CAACs) by an aryl group. This structural modification leads to enhanced electrophilicity of the carbene center with retention of the high nucleophilicity of CAACs, and therefore CAArCs feature a small singlet-triplet gap. The isoindolium precursors are readily prepared in good yields, and deprotonation at low temperature, in the presence of [RhCl(cod)]2 and [(Me2S)AuCl] lead to air-stable rhodium and gold CAArC-supported complexes, respectively. The rhodium complexes promote the [3+2] cycloaddition of diphenylcyclopropenone with ethyl phenylpropiolate, and induce the addition of 2-vinylpyridine to alkenes by CH activation. The gold complexes allow for the catalytic three-component preparation of 1,2-dihydroquinolines from aniline and phenyl acetylene. These preliminary results illustrate the potential of CAArC ligands in transition-metal catalysis., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

A novel synthetic route gives access to mesoionic carbene and cyclopropenylidene supported gold chloride complexes. The corresponding cationic MIC-gold complex obtained by chloride abstraction allows for the first transition metal-catalyzed functionalization of both nitrogens of parent hydrazine., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

The parent phosphenium ion (PH2(+)), and even any phosphenium salts bearing a hydrogen (HRP(+)), have never been observed. The addition of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid and carbon electrophiles to an NHC-PH adduct, featuring a very bulky NHC, allows for the preparation and isolation of such compounds. Computational investigations show that most of the positive charge is localized at phosphorus, demonstrating the phosphenium nature of this compound. Further, the PH moiety is able to utilize one or both of its lone pairs to bind to one or two metals.

The copper-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of an azide to a terminal alkyne (CuAAC) is one of the most popular chemical transformations, with applications ranging from material to life sciences. However, despite many mechanistic studies, direct observation of key components of the catalytic cycle is still missing. Initially, mononuclear species were thought to be the active catalysts, but later on, dinuclear complexes came to the front. We report the isolation of both a previously postulated π,σ-bis(copper) acetylide and a hitherto never-mentioned bis(metallated) triazole complex. We also demonstrate that although mono- and bis-copper complexes promote the CuAAC reaction, the dinuclear species are involved in the kinetically favored pathway.

A stable cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) 1 inserts into the para-CF bond of pentafluoropyridine, and after fluoride abstraction, the iminium-pyridyl adduct [3](+) was isolated. A cyclic voltammetry study shows a reversible three-state redox system involving [3](+) , [3](⋅) , and [3](-) . The CAAC-pyridyl radical [3](⋅) , obtained by reduction of [3](+) with magnesium, has been spectroscopically and crystallographically characterized. In contrast to the lack of π communication between the CAAC and the pyridine units in cation [3](+) , the unpaired electron of [3](⋅) is delocalized over an extended π system involving both heterocycles., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

The first stable copper borohydride complex [(CAAC)CuBH4] [CAAC = cyclic(alkyl)(amino)carbene] bearing a single monodentate ligand was prepared by addition of NaBH4 or BH3NH3 to the corresponding [(CAAC)CuCl] complex. Both complexes are air-stable and promote the catalytic hydrolytic dehydrogenation of ammonia borane. The amount of hydrogen released reaches 2.8 H2/BH3 NH3 with a turnover frequency of 8400 mol H2 molcat(-1) h(-1) at 25 °C. In a fifteen-cycle experiment, the catalyst was reused without any loss of efficiency., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

CONSPECTUS: Carbenes are compounds that feature a divalent carbon atom with only six electrons in its valence shell. In the singlet state, they possess a lone pair of electrons and a vacant orbital and therefore exhibit Lewis acidic and Lewis basic properties, which explains their very high reactivity. Following the preparation by our group in 1988 of the first representative, a variety of stable carbenes are now available, the most popular being the cyclic diaminocarbenes. In this Account, we discuss another class of stable cyclic carbenes, namely, cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbenes (CAACs), in which one of the electronegative and π-donor amino substituents of diaminocarbenes is replaced by a σ-donating but not π-donating alkyl group. As a consequence, CAACs are more nucleophilic (σ-donating) but also more electrophilic (π-accepting) than diaminocarbenes. Additionally, the presence of a quaternary carbon in the position α to the carbene center provides steric environments that differentiate CAACs dramatically from all other ligands. We show that the peculiar electronic and steric properties of CAACs allow for the stabilization of unusual diamagnetic and paramagnetic main group element species. As examples, we describe the preparation of room temperature stable phosphorus derivatives in which the heteroatom is in the zero oxidation state, nucleophilic boron compounds, and phosphorus-, antimony-, boron-, silicon-, and even carbon-centered neutral and cationic radicals. CAACs are also excellent ligands for transition metal complexes. The most recent application is their use for the stabilization of paramagnetic complexes, in which the metal is often in a formal zero oxidation state. Indeed, bis(CAAC)M complexes in which the metal is gold, copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, manganese, and zinc have been isolated. Depending on the metal, the majority of spin density can reside either on the metal or on the carbene carbons and the nitrogen atoms of the CAAC ligand. In contrast to diaminocarbenes, the higher basicity of CAACs makes them poor leaving groups, and thus they cannot be used for classical organocatalysis. However, because of their superior electrophilicity and smaller singlet-triplet gap, CAACs can activate small molecules at room temperature, such as CO, H2, and P4, as well as enthalpically strong bonds, such as B-H, Si-H, N-H, and P-H. Lastly, excellent results have been obtained in palladium, ruthenium, and gold catalysis. CAAC-metal complexes are extremely thermally robust, which allows for their utilization in harsh conditions. This property has been used to perform a variety of gold-catalyzed reactions in the presence of basic amines, including ammonia and hydrazine, which usually deactivate catalysts.

Two (cAAC)2Cu complexes, featuring a two-coordinate copper atom in the formal oxidation state zero, were prepared by reducing (Et2-cAAC)2Cu(+)I(-) with metallic sodium in THF, and by a one-pot synthesis using Me2-cAAC, Cu(II)Cl2, and KC8 in toluene in a molar ratio of 2:1:2, respectively. Both complexes are highly air and moisture sensitive but can be stored in the solid state for a month at room temperature. DFT calculations showed that in these complexes the copper center has a d(10) electronic configuration and the unpaired electron is delocalized over two carbene carbon atoms. This was further confirmed by the EPR spectra, which exhibit multiple hyperfine lines due to the coupling of the unpaired electron with (63,65)Cu isotopes, (14)N, and (1)H nuclei.

Transition metal complexes featuring a metal-nitrogen multiple bond have been widely studied due to their implication in dinitrogen fixation and catalytic nitrogen-carbon bond formation. Terminal copper- and silver-nitrene complexes have long been proposed to be the key intermediates in aziridination and amination reactions using azides as the nitrogen source. However, due to their high reactivity, these species have eluded isolation and spectroscopic characterization even at low temperatures. In this paper we report that a stable phosphinonitrene reacts with coinage metal trifluoromethanesulfonates, affording bridging and terminal copper- and silver-nitrene complexes, which are characterized by NMR spectroscopy and single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis.

Why not both? Both β- and α-hydrogen atoms of gold alkyl complexes are hydridic enough to be abstracted, opening a new route to gold-alkene and gold-carbene complexes, respectively., (Copyright © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Cationic phosphoranimines have been postulated as intermediates in phosphazene polymerization chemistry. However, the high electrophilicity of the phosphorus center has so far prevented their characterization. Here, we report the synthesis of two Lewis base-free iminophosphonium salts, obtained by reaction of a stable phosphinonitrene with methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid. These cationic species were characterized by NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Using 4-(dimethylamino)pyridine, a corresponding Lewis-base adduct has also been isolated.

An acidic hydride! Thanks to the presence of a π-acceptor cyclic alkyl amino carbene and of two electron-withdrawing nitrile groups, a borohydride reacts with a base to give a carbene-stabilized boryl anion, which reacts with carbon and metal electrophiles at the boron center. Dipp = 2,6-diisopropylphenyl, KHMDS = potassium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide., (Copyright © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)