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Attaching cameras to marine mammals allows for first-hand observation of underwater behaviours that may otherwise go unseen. While studying the foraging behaviour of 26 lactating Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) in Erebus Bay during the austral spring of 2018 and 2019, we witnessed three adults and one pup investigating the cavities of Rossellidae glass sponges, with one seal visibly chewing when she removed her head from the sponge. To our knowledge, this is the first report of such behaviour. While the prey item was not identifiable, some Trematomus fish (a known Weddell seal prey) use glass sponges for shelter and in which to lay their eggs. Three of the four sponge foraging observations occurred around 13:00 (NZDT). Two of the three sponge foraging adults had higher-than-average reproductive rates, and the greatest number of previous pups of any seal in our study population, each having ten pups in 12 years. This is far higher than the study population average of three previous pups (± 2.6 SD). This novel foraging strategy may have evolved in response to changes in prey availability, and could offer an evolutionary advantage to some individuals that exploit prey resources that others may not. Our observations offer new insight into the foraging behaviours of one of the world’s most studied marine mammals. Further research on the social aspects of Weddell seal behaviour may increase our understanding of the extent and mechanisms of behavioural transfer between conspecifics. Research into the specific foraging behaviour of especially successful or experienced breeders is also warranted.

The original version of the Description of Additional Supplementary Files associated with this Article contained errors in the legends of Supplementary Data 5–8 and omitted legends for the Source Data. The HTML has been updated to include a corrected version of the Description of Additional Supplementary Files; the original incorrect version of this file can be found as Supplementary Information associated with this Correction.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physicalbiogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

In the deep ocean symbioses between microbes and invertebrates are emerging as key drivers of ecosystem health and services. We present a large-scale analysis of microbial diversity in deep-sea sponges (Porifera) from scales of sponge individuals to ocean basins, covering 52 locations, 1077 host individuals translating into 169 sponge species (including understudied glass sponges), and 469 reference samples, collected anew during 21 ship-based expeditions. We demonstrate the impacts of the sponge microbial abundance status, geographic distance, sponge phylogeny, and the physical-biogeochemical environment as drivers of microbiome composition, in descending order of relevance. Our study further discloses that fundamental concepts of sponge microbiology apply robustly to sponges from the deep-sea across distances of >10,000 km. Deep-sea sponge microbiomes are less complex, yet more heterogeneous, than their shallow-water counterparts. Our analysis underscores the uniqueness of each deep-sea sponge ground based on which we provide critical knowledge for conservation of these vulnerable ecosystems.

The original version of the Description of Additional Supplementary Files associated with this Article contained errors in the legends of Supplementary Data 5–8 and omitted legends for the Source Data. The HTML has been updated to include a corrected version of the Description of Additional Supplementary Files; the original incorrect version of this file can be found as Supplementary Information associated with this Correction.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are conspicuous habitat-forming members of many Antarctic shelf communities. Despite their ecological importance, in-situ species identification remains problematic as it is traditionally based on micro- scopic analysis of spicules. External morphological features, in contrast, have largely been disregarded, so that different species have been mislabeled or lumped together when their identification was based on image material. In this paper, we provide a straight-forward guideline for in-situ identification of the most common rossellid sponges of the Antarctic shelf based on macroscopic characteristics. To determine diagnostic macroscopic characteristics of Anoxycalyx (Scolymastra) joubini and eight Rossella species, we combined examination of trawl-collected specimens, previous species descriptions and in-situ image material from the eastern Weddell Sea. Our study revealed that the smooth-walled species A. joubini, R. nuda and R. vanhoeffeni, previously often mixed up, can be distinguished by the form of their basal spicule tuft, their surface structure and their overall body form. The previously synonymized species R. racovitzae and R. podagrosa can be distinguished by their markedly different habitus. Based on our results, the so-called ‘R. racovitzae budding type’ in fact refers to R. podagrosa which occurs regularly in the eastern Weddell Sea. The species R. villosa, R. levis, R. fibulata and R. antarctica can be distinguished by the appearance of their conules, protruding spicules and overall body form. We conclude that macroscopic characteristics are helpful means for identification of Antarctic rossellid sponge species. This approach enables species-specific quantitative studies of Antarctic glass sponge grounds based on increasingly used non-invasive imaging technology.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are conspicuous habitat-forming members of many Antarctic shelf communities. Despite their ecological importance, in-situ species identification remains problematic as it is traditionally based on micro- scopic analysis of spicules. External morphological features, in contrast, have largely been disregarded, so that different species have been mislabeled or lumped together when their identification was based on image material. In this paper, we provide a straight-forward guideline for in-situ identification of the most common rossellid sponges of the Antarctic shelf based on macroscopic characteristics. To determine diagnostic macroscopic characteristics of Anoxycalyx (Scolymastra) joubini and eight Rossella species, we combined examination of trawl-collected specimens, previous species descriptions and in-situ image material from the eastern Weddell Sea. Our study revealed that the smooth-walled species A. joubini, R. nuda and R. vanhoeffeni, previously often mixed up, can be distinguished by the form of their basal spicule tuft, their surface structure and their overall body form. The previously synonymized species R. racovitzae and R. podagrosa can be distinguished by their markedly different habitus. Based on our results, the so-called ‘R. racovitzae budding type’ in fact refers to R. podagrosa which occurs regularly in the eastern Weddell Sea. The species R. villosa, R. levis, R. fibulata and R. antarctica can be distinguished by the appearance of their conules, protruding spicules and overall body form. We conclude that macroscopic characteristics are helpful means for identification of Antarctic rossellid sponge species. This approach enables species-specific quantitative studies of Antarctic glass sponge grounds based on increasingly used non-invasive imaging technology.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are important structuring components of the benthos in Antarctic shelf regions. They can grow up to 2 m in height and form extensive sponge beds in some areas, dominating the benthic biomass and providing habitat for a variety of other animals. However, much of their ecology is still unknown to date, including the factors determining their distribution and abundance. In the current study, we investigate glass sponge distribution and abundance in the south-eastern Weddell Sea in relation to environmental factors (water mass characteristics, currents, ice cover), as well as food availability and abundance of predators. During two recent expeditions with RV Polarstern in 2013/14 and 2015/16, we collected photos and videos of the ocean floor by using different gear equipped with HD cameras: an Ocean Floor Observation System (OFOS), a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), and a multi grab (MG). For each of 28 stations, 30 images are selected and analysed for abundance and species composition of glass sponges and their predators, as well as substrate characteristics. In addition to that, we measured temperature, salinity, concentrations of dissolved and particulate silicon, and bacterial cell numbers. Furthermore, model and/or satellite data on current strength, mean annual ice cover and chlorophyll a concentration as a proxy for productivity will be included in the study. Glass sponge abundance will be analysed in relation to the environmental data and predator abundance in order to identify the factors determining the abundance and distribution of glass sponges in the south-eastern Weddell Sea. Our findings will provide an important baseline to assess how glass sponge communities might change in a changing Antarctic environment.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are an important part of epibenthic communities in the shelf areas of Antarctica. They can grow to considerable sizes of up to 2 m height and form vast sponge beds which provide habitat for various other animals. Despite continuous research on Antarctic benthic community structure and distribution and the obvious dominance of glass sponges in some shelf communities, very little is known about their physiology and their role in biogeochemical cycles. While past studies hypothesized that they have a significant impact on carbon and silicon cycling, this had so far not been investigated in Antarctic glass sponges in situ. During a recent expedition with RV Polarstern to the south-eastern Weddell Sea in 2015/16, we conducted a first in-situ study of pump rates and metabolism in Antarctic hexactinellids. Using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), we investigated 27 sponges of various sizes (15-65 cm height) belonging to several common species (Rossella sp. and Anoxycalyx joubini) at four stations between 210 m and 420 m water depth. We applied a fluorescent dye at the outside wall of the sponges to measure their pump rates. 63% of the sponges were found to be actively pumping. Furthermore, we sampled the exhalant current and the corresponding ambient water of 22 individuals with a new custom-made water sampling system. The samples were analysed for dissolved silicon, ammonium and picoplankton and the differences between ambient water and exhalant current were calculated for each sponge. In addition to that, we measured oxygen consumption in 10 sponges using an oxygen optode. Here, we relate the measured pump rates to sponge size, and present biomass-specific fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, and silicon, as well as clearance and respiration rates for these important foundation species. Extrapolation of our findings to larger spatial scales will help to better estimate the role of Antarctic glass sponges on carbon and silicon cycling.

Declines in the abundance of long-lived and habitat-forming species on continental shelves have attracted particular attention given their importance to ecosystem structure and function of marine habitats. The study of undisturbed habitats defined as “pristine areas” is essential in creating a frame of reference for natural habitats free of human interference. Gorgonian species are one of the key structure-forming taxa in benthic communities on the Antarctic continental shelf. Current knowledge of the diversity, distribution and demography of this group is relatively limited in Antarctica. To overcome this lack of information we present original data on pristine and remote populations of gorgonians from the Weddell Sea, some of which display the largest colony sizes ever recorded in Antarctica. We assessed the distribution patterns of seven gorgonian species, a morphogroup and a family in front of the Filchner Ronne Ice Shelf (Weddell Sea) by means of quantitative analysis of video transects. Analysis of these videos showed a total of 3140 colonies of gorgonians with the highest abundance in the southern section and a significantly clumped distribution. This study contributes to the general knowledge of pristine areas of the continental shelf and identifies the eastern Weddell Sea as a hotspot for habitat-forming species.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are an important part of epibenthic communities in the shelf areas of Antarctica. They can grow to considerable sizes of up to 2m height and form vast sponge beds which provide habitat for various other animals. Despite continuous research on Antarctic benthic community structure and distribution and the obvious dominance of glass sponges in some shelf communities, very little is known about the physiology of these sessile filter feeders and their role in biogeochemical cycles. While past studies hypothesized that they have a significant impact on carbon and silicon cycling, this had so far not been investigated in situ. During a recent expedition with RV Polarstern to the south-eastern Weddell Sea in 2015/16, we conducted a first in-situ study of pump rates and metabolism in Antarctic glass sponges. Using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), we investigated 27 sponges of various sizes (15-65cm height) belonging to several common species (Rossella sp. and Anoxycalyx joubini) at four stations between 210m and 420m water depth. We applied a fluorescent dye at the outside wall of the sponges to measure their pump rates and found 63% of them to be actively pumping. Furthermore, we sampled the exhalant current and the corresponding ambient water of 22 individuals with a new custom-made water sampling system. The samples were analysed for dissolved silicon, ammonium and picoplankton and the differences between ambient water and exhalant current were calculated for each sponge. In addition to that, we measured oxygen consumption in 10 sponges using an oxygen optode. Here, we relate the measured pump rates to sponge size, and present biomass-specific fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, and silicon, as well as clearance and respiration rates for these important foundation species. Extrapolation of our findings to larger spatial scales will help to better estimate the role of Antarctic glass sponges on carbon and silicon cycling.

Declines in the abundance of long-lived and habitat-forming species on continental shelves have attracted particular attention given their importance to ecosystem structure and function of marine habitats. The study of undisturbed habitats defined as “pristine areas” is essential in creating a frame of reference for natural habitats free of human interference. Gorgonian species are one of the key structure-forming taxa in benthic communities on the Antarctic continental shelf. Current knowledge of the diversity, distribution and demography of this group is relatively limited in Antarctica. To overcome this lack of information we present original data on pristine and remote populations of gorgonians from the Weddell Sea, some of which display the largest colony sizes ever recorded in Antarctica. We assessed the distribution patterns of seven gorgonian species, a morphogroup and a family in front of the Filchner Ronne Ice Shelf (Weddell Sea) by means of quantitative analysis of video transects. Analysis of these videos showed a total of 3140 colonies of gorgonians with the highest abundance in the southern section and a significantly clumped distribution. This study contributes to the general knowledge of pristine areas of the continental shelf and identifies the eastern Weddell Sea as a hotspot for habitat-forming species.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are important structuring components of the benthos in Antarctic shelf regions. They can grow up to 2 m in height and form extensive sponge beds in some areas, dominating the benthic biomass and providing habitat for a variety of other animals. However, much of their ecology is still unknown to date, including the factors determining their distribution and abundance. In the current study, we investigate glass sponge distribution and abundance in the south-eastern Weddell Sea in relation to environmental factors (water mass characteristics, currents, ice cover), as well as food availability and abundance of predators. During two recent expeditions with RV Polarstern in 2013/14 and 2015/16, we collected photos and videos of the ocean floor by using different gear equipped with HD cameras: an Ocean Floor Observation System (OFOS), a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV), and a multi grab (MG). For each of 28 stations, 30 images are selected and analysed for abundance and species composition of glass sponges and their predators, as well as substrate characteristics. In addition to that, we measured temperature, salinity, concentrations of dissolved and particulate silicon, and bacterial cell numbers. Furthermore, model and/or satellite data on current strength, mean annual ice cover and chlorophyll a concentration as a proxy for productivity will be included in the study. Glass sponge abundance will be analysed in relation to the environmental data and predator abundance in order to identify the factors determining the abundance and distribution of glass sponges in the south-eastern Weddell Sea. Our findings will provide an important baseline to assess how glass sponge communities might change in a changing Antarctic environment.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are an important part of epibenthic communities in the shelf areas of Antarctica. They can grow to considerable sizes of up to 2 m height and form vast sponge beds which provide habitat for various other animals. Despite continuous research on Antarctic benthic community structure and distribution and the obvious dominance of glass sponges in some shelf communities, very little is known about their physiology and their role in biogeochemical cycles. While past studies hypothesized that they have a significant impact on carbon and silicon cycling, this had so far not been investigated in Antarctic glass sponges in situ. During a recent expedition with RV Polarstern to the south-eastern Weddell Sea in 2015/16, we conducted a first in-situ study of pump rates and metabolism in Antarctic hexactinellids. Using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), we investigated 27 sponges of various sizes (15-65 cm height) belonging to several common species (Rossella sp. and Anoxycalyx joubini) at four stations between 210 m and 420 m water depth. We applied a fluorescent dye at the outside wall of the sponges to measure their pump rates. 63% of the sponges were found to be actively pumping. Furthermore, we sampled the exhalant current and the corresponding ambient water of 22 individuals with a new custom-made water sampling system. The samples were analysed for dissolved silicon, ammonium and picoplankton and the differences between ambient water and exhalant current were calculated for each sponge. In addition to that, we measured oxygen consumption in 10 sponges using an oxygen optode. Here, we relate the measured pump rates to sponge size, and present biomass-specific fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, and silicon, as well as clearance and respiration rates for these important foundation species. Extrapolation of our findings to larger spatial scales will help to better estimate the role of Antarctic glass sponges on carbon and silicon cycling.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are an important part of epibenthic communities in the shelf areas of Antarctica. They can grow to considerable sizes of up to 2m height and form vast sponge beds which provide habitat for various other animals. Despite continuous research on Antarctic benthic community structure and distribution and the obvious dominance of glass sponges in some shelf communities, very little is known about the physiology of these sessile filter feeders and their role in biogeochemical cycles. While past studies hypothesized that they have a significant impact on carbon and silicon cycling, this had so far not been investigated in situ. During a recent expedition with RV Polarstern to the south-eastern Weddell Sea in 2015/16, we conducted a first in-situ study of pump rates and metabolism in Antarctic glass sponges. Using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), we investigated 27 sponges of various sizes (15-65cm height) belonging to several common species (Rossella sp. and Anoxycalyx joubini) at four stations between 210m and 420m water depth. We applied a fluorescent dye at the outside wall of the sponges to measure their pump rates and found 63% of them to be actively pumping. Furthermore, we sampled the exhalant current and the corresponding ambient water of 22 individuals with a new custom-made water sampling system. The samples were analysed for dissolved silicon, ammonium and picoplankton and the differences between ambient water and exhalant current were calculated for each sponge. In addition to that, we measured oxygen consumption in 10 sponges using an oxygen optode. Here, we relate the measured pump rates to sponge size, and present biomass-specific fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, and silicon, as well as clearance and respiration rates for these important foundation species. Extrapolation of our findings to larger spatial scales will help to better estimate the role of Antarctic glass sponges on carbon and silicon cycling.

Declines in the abundance of long-lived and habitat-forming species on continental shelves have attracted particular attention given their importance to ecosystem structure and function of marine habitats. The study of undisturbed habitats defined as >pristine areas> is essential in creating a frame of reference for natural habitats free of human interference. Gorgonian species are one of the key structure-forming taxa in benthic communities on the Antarctic continental shelf. Current knowledge of the diversity, distribution and demography of this group is relatively limited in Antarctica. To overcome this lack of information we present original data on pristine and remote populations of gorgonians from the Weddell Sea, some of which display the largest colony sizes ever recorded in Antarctica. We assessed the distribution patterns of seven gorgonian species, a morphogroup and a family in front of the Filchner Ronne Ice Shelf (Weddell Sea) by means of quantitative analysis of video transects. Analysis of these videos showed a total of 3140 colonies of gorgonians with the highest abundance in the southern section and a significantly clumped distribution. This study contributes to the general knowledge of pristine areas of the continental shelf and identifies the eastern Weddell Sea as a hotspot for habitat-forming species

On Antarctic shelves, glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) dominate the megabenthic epifauna. But in spite of intensive research on epifauna community structure, process studies on the ecophysiology of key species are so far lacking, due to the difficulty of accessing glass sponges in their habitat and keeping them alive for experimental work. Here, we present preliminary results of an in situ study carried out in the Weddell Sea using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to measure feeding, respiration, ammonium excretion and silicate uptake in the common glass sponges Rossella nuda / Anoxycalyx joubini, R. racovitzae and R. villosa. A custom-developed ROV-mounted water sampler was successfully deployed. A total of 22 samples from sponge oscula and 21 samples from ambient waters were analyzed for picoplankton, ammonium and dissolved silicate concentrations. Optode measurements in the ambient water and inside the sponge oscula revealed a measurable difference of ~0.5 µM oxygen between ambient and exhalant waters. Together with estimates of the exhalant volume flow from concomitant fluorescein dye experiments, the oxygen and silicon uptake as well as the ammonium excretion of individual sponges can be estimated. Our findings will help elucidate the role of hexactinellid sponges in carbon and silicon cycling and contribute to understanding future effects of sea-ice and productivity changes on Antarctic ecosystem structure, functioning and services.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are important structuring components of the benthos in Antarctic shelf regions. These sessile filter feeders can grow up to 2 m in height and form extensive sponge beds in some areas, dominating the benthic biomass and providing habitat for a variety of other animals. However, much of their ecology is still unknown to date, including the factors determining their distribution and abundance. In the current study, we investigate glass sponge distribution and abundance in the south-eastern Weddell Sea in relation to environmental factors (water mass characteristics, currents, ice cover), as well as food availability and abundance of predators. During two recent expeditions with RV Polarstern, we collected photos and videos of the ocean floor by using different gear equipped with HD cameras: a multi grab (MG), an Ocean Floor Observation System (OFOS) and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). For each of 28 stations, 30 images are selected and analyzed for abundance and species composition of glass sponges and their predators, as well as substrate characteristics. In addition to that, we measured temperature, salinity, dissolved silicate, particulate silicate and bacterial cell numbers. Furthermore, model and/or satellite data on current strength and mean annual ice cover will be included in the study. Glass sponge abundance will be analyzed in relation to the environmental data and predator abundance in order to identify the factors determining the abundance and distribution of glass sponges in the south-eastern Weddell Sea. Our findings will provide an important baseline to assess how glass sponge communities might change in a changing Antarctic environment.

On Antarctic shelves, glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) dominate the megabenthic epifauna. But in spite of intensive research on epifauna community structure, process studies on the ecophysiology of key species are so far lacking, due to the difficulty of accessing glass sponges in their habitat and keeping them alive for experimental work. Here, we present preliminary results of an in situ study carried out in the Weddell Sea using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to measure feeding, respiration, ammonium excretion and silicate uptake in the common glass sponges Rossella nuda / Anoxycalyx joubini, R. racovitzae and R. villosa. A custom-developed ROV-mounted water sampler was successfully deployed. A total of 22 samples from sponge oscula and 21 samples from ambient waters were analyzed for picoplankton, ammonium and dissolved silicate concentrations. Optode measurements in the ambient water and inside the sponge oscula revealed a measurable difference of ~0.5 µM oxygen between ambient and exhalant waters. Together with estimates of the exhalant volume flow from concomitant fluorescein dye experiments, the oxygen and silicon uptake as well as the ammonium excretion of individual sponges can be estimated. Our findings will help elucidate the role of hexactinellid sponges in carbon and silicon cycling and contribute to understanding future effects of sea-ice and productivity changes on Antarctic ecosystem structure, functioning and services.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are important structuring components of the benthos in Antarctic shelf regions. These sessile filter feeders can grow up to 2 m in height and form extensive sponge beds in some areas, dominating the benthic biomass and providing habitat for a variety of other animals. However, much of their ecology is still unknown to date, including the factors determining their distribution and abundance. In the current study, we investigate glass sponge distribution and abundance in the south-eastern Weddell Sea in relation to environmental factors (water mass characteristics, currents, ice cover), as well as food availability and abundance of predators. During two recent expeditions with RV Polarstern, we collected photos and videos of the ocean floor by using different gear equipped with HD cameras: a multi grab (MG), an Ocean Floor Observation System (OFOS) and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). For each of 28 stations, 30 images are selected and analyzed for abundance and species composition of glass sponges and their predators, as well as substrate characteristics. In addition to that, we measured temperature, salinity, dissolved silicate, particulate silicate and bacterial cell numbers. Furthermore, model and/or satellite data on current strength and mean annual ice cover will be included in the study. Glass sponge abundance will be analyzed in relation to the environmental data and predator abundance in order to identify the factors determining the abundance and distribution of glass sponges in the south-eastern Weddell Sea. Our findings will provide an important baseline to assess how glass sponge communities might change in a changing Antarctic environment.

Highlights • Calcification rates are stimulated by CO2 and HCO3− and inhibited by H+. • This novel substrate–inhibitor concept is tested with experimental data. • The concept enables us to reconcile conflicting results among laboratory studies. • We illustrate how this physiological concept can be included in ecological theory. • We apply the concept to discuss coccolithophore dispersal in the oceans. Abstract Coccolithophores are a group of unicellular phytoplankton species whose ability to calcify has a profound influence on biogeochemical element cycling. Calcification rates are controlled by a large variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Among these factors, carbonate chemistry has gained considerable attention during the last years as coccolithophores have been identified to be particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. Despite intense research in this area, a general concept harmonizing the numerous and sometimes (seemingly) contradictory responses of coccolithophores to changing carbonate chemistry is still lacking to date. Here, we present the “substrate–inhibitor concept” which describes the dependence of calcification rates on carbonate chemistry speciation. It is based on observations that calcification rate scales positively with bicarbonate (HCO3−), the primary substrate for calcification, and carbon dioxide (CO2), which can limit cell growth, whereas it is inhibited by protons (H+). This concept was implemented in a model equation, tested against experimental data, and then applied to understand and reconcile the diverging responses of coccolithophorid calcification rates to ocean acidification obtained in culture experiments. Furthermore, we (i) discuss how other important calcification-influencing factors (e.g. temperature and light) could be implemented in our concept and (ii) embed it in Hutchinson’s niche theory, thereby providing a framework for how carbonate chemistry-induced changes in calcification rates could be linked with changing cocco

Highlights • Calcification rates are stimulated by CO2 and HCO3− and inhibited by H+. • This novel substrate–inhibitor concept is tested with experimental data. • The concept enables us to reconcile conflicting results among laboratory studies. • We illustrate how this physiological concept can be included in ecological theory. • We apply the concept to discuss coccolithophore dispersal in the oceans. Abstract Coccolithophores are a group of unicellular phytoplankton species whose ability to calcify has a profound influence on biogeochemical element cycling. Calcification rates are controlled by a large variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Among these factors, carbonate chemistry has gained considerable attention during the last years as coccolithophores have been identified to be particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. Despite intense research in this area, a general concept harmonizing the numerous and sometimes (seemingly) contradictory responses of coccolithophores to changing carbonate chemistry is still lacking to date. Here, we present the “substrate–inhibitor concept” which describes the dependence of calcification rates on carbonate chemistry speciation. It is based on observations that calcification rate scales positively with bicarbonate (HCO3−), the primary substrate for calcification, and carbon dioxide (CO2), which can limit cell growth, whereas it is inhibited by protons (H+). This concept was implemented in a model equation, tested against experimental data, and then applied to understand and reconcile the diverging responses of coccolithophorid calcification rates to ocean acidification obtained in culture experiments. Furthermore, we (i) discuss how other important calcification-influencing factors (e.g. temperature and light) could be implemented in our concept and (ii) embed it in Hutchinson’s niche theory, thereby providing a framework for how carbonate chemistry-induced changes in calcification rates could be linked with changing cocco

Highlights • Calcification rates are stimulated by CO2 and HCO3− and inhibited by H+. • This novel substrate–inhibitor concept is tested with experimental data. • The concept enables us to reconcile conflicting results among laboratory studies. • We illustrate how this physiological concept can be included in ecological theory. • We apply the concept to discuss coccolithophore dispersal in the oceans. Abstract Coccolithophores are a group of unicellular phytoplankton species whose ability to calcify has a profound influence on biogeochemical element cycling. Calcification rates are controlled by a large variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Among these factors, carbonate chemistry has gained considerable attention during the last years as coccolithophores have been identified to be particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. Despite intense research in this area, a general concept harmonizing the numerous and sometimes (seemingly) contradictory responses of coccolithophores to changing carbonate chemistry is still lacking to date. Here, we present the “substrate–inhibitor concept” which describes the dependence of calcification rates on carbonate chemistry speciation. It is based on observations that calcification rate scales positively with bicarbonate (HCO3−), the primary substrate for calcification, and carbon dioxide (CO2), which can limit cell growth, whereas it is inhibited by protons (H+). This concept was implemented in a model equation, tested against experimental data, and then applied to understand and reconcile the diverging responses of coccolithophorid calcification rates to ocean acidification obtained in culture experiments. Furthermore, we (i) discuss how other important calcification-influencing factors (e.g. temperature and light) could be implemented in our concept and (ii) embed it in Hutchinson’s niche theory, thereby providing a framework for how carbonate chemistry-induced changes in calcification rates could be linked with changing cocco

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are one of the oldest existing animal groups. These marine sessile filter feeders were highly abundant throughout the ocean in the Jurassic period, when they formed vast reefs. Today, however, they mainly inhabit the deep sea, the Antarctic shelves and the shallow fjords along the coast of British Columbia, Canada. In the Antarctic, glass sponges are of particular ecological relevance, as they dominate the benthic biomass in many areas. The richly structured sponge beds harbor a diverse associated fauna and play a significant role in silicon cycling and bentho-pelagic coupling. Unfortunately, it is still unknown which factors determine glass sponge distribution and, therefore, how environmental changes might affect these important Antarctic communities. The aim of our study was to characterize environments with and without glass sponges to identify the determining parameters. We conducted video transects with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and measured various environmental parameters at corresponding stations in the Weddell Sea during expedition PS82 with RV Polarstern in January/February 2014. Our poster shows some preliminary results on glass sponge abundance and community composition, as well as profiles of environmental parameters at different stations. Glass sponge environments seem to differ from areas devoid of sponges for example in bottom water temperatures and dissolved silicate concentrations. Both parameters were found to be lower at ROV stations with glass sponges compared to those without. While the distribution of sponges might be affected by temperature and dissolved silicate, the animals might, on the other hand, reduce silicate concentrations themselves. However, it is not yet clear whether the observed differences are really related to the presence or absence of glass sponges. These first results provide ample opportunity for discussion of the relationships between glass sponge communities and their env

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are one of the oldest existing animal groups. Today, these marine sessile filter feeders mainly inhabit the deep sea, but they also occur in considerable numbers on the Antarctic shelves and along the eastern North Pacific coast. Especially in the Antarctic, they are of substantial ecological relevance, as vast sponge beds dominate the benthic biomass of some areas where they play a significant role in silicon cycling and provide structural heterogeneity for a diverse associated fauna. It is still unknown, however, which factors determine glass sponge distribution and, consequently, how environmental changes might affect Antarctic glass sponge communities. In order to fill these knowledge gaps, we conducted video transects using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and measured various environmental parameters at corresponding stations in the Weddell Sea during expedition PS82 with RV Polarstern in January/February 2014. First results suggest a connection of glass sponge occurrence with bottom water temperatures and dissolved silicate, factors also considered important for glass sponge distribution in western Canada. In this presentation, some preliminary results on glass sponge abundance and community composition are discussed in relation to abiotic (water mass characteristics, currents, pack ice cover, dissolved silicate) and biotic factors (food, predators) to assess their role on glass sponge distribution in the eastern Weddell Sea.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are one of the oldest existing animal groups. Today, these marine sessile filter feeders mainly inhabit the deep sea, but they also occur in considerable numbers on the Antarctic shelves and along the eastern North Pacific coast. Especially in the Antarctic, they are of substantial ecological relevance, as vast sponge beds dominate the benthic biomass of some areas where they play a significant role in silicon cycling and provide structural heterogeneity for a diverse associated fauna. It is still unknown, however, which factors determine glass sponge distribution and, consequently, how environmental changes might affect Antarctic glass sponge communities. In order to fill these knowledge gaps, we conducted video transects using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and measured various environmental parameters at corresponding stations in the Weddell Sea during expedition PS82 with RV Polarstern in January/February 2014. First results suggest a connection of glass sponge occurrence with bottom water temperatures and dissolved silicate, factors also considered important for glass sponge distribution in western Canada. In this presentation, some preliminary results on glass sponge abundance and community composition are discussed in relation to abiotic (water mass characteristics, currents, pack ice cover, dissolved silicate) and biotic factors (food, predators) to assess their role on glass sponge distribution in the eastern Weddell Sea.

Glass sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) are one of the oldest existing animal groups. These marine sessile filter feeders were highly abundant throughout the ocean in the Jurassic period, when they formed vast reefs. Today, however, they mainly inhabit the deep sea, the Antarctic shelves and the shallow fjords along the coast of British Columbia, Canada. In the Antarctic, glass sponges are of particular ecological relevance, as they dominate the benthic biomass in many areas. The richly structured sponge beds harbor a diverse associated fauna and play a significant role in silicon cycling and bentho-pelagic coupling. Unfortunately, it is still unknown which factors determine glass sponge distribution and, therefore, how environmental changes might affect these important Antarctic communities. The aim of our study was to characterize environments with and without glass sponges to identify the determining parameters. We conducted video transects with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and measured various environmental parameters at corresponding stations in the Weddell Sea during expedition PS82 with RV Polarstern in January/February 2014. Our poster shows some preliminary results on glass sponge abundance and community composition, as well as profiles of environmental parameters at different stations. Glass sponge environments seem to differ from areas devoid of sponges for example in bottom water temperatures and dissolved silicate concentrations. Both parameters were found to be lower at ROV stations with glass sponges compared to those without. While the distribution of sponges might be affected by temperature and dissolved silicate, the animals might, on the other hand, reduce silicate concentrations themselves. However, it is not yet clear whether the observed differences are really related to the presence or absence of glass sponges. These first results provide ample opportunity for discussion of the relationships between glass sponge communities and their env

The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi is one of the major producers of biogenic calcite in the ocean. lt has been studied extensively with regard to biogeochemical processes and the global carbon cycle. However, the process of calcification in this microalga is still not completely understood. In this Master's thesis, the limiting parameters of the marine carbonate system for calcification in E. huxleyi were investigated. In two different approaches, cultures of E. huxleyi were grown under carbonate chemistry conditions that suppressed calcification (low DIC and low pH) resulting in non-calcifying cells. Subsequently, the carbonate chemistry conditions were altered either by external manipulation or by the physiological processes of the cells themselves, eventually reaching favorable conditions for calcification. The carbonate chemistry conditions and the degree of calcification were examined. The results of this thesis confirm bicarbonate (HC03-) as main substrate for calcification in E. huxleyi, but they also suggest a supportive role for carbon dioxide (C02). Further, calcification is not regulated by the substrates or any other carbonate chemistry parameter alone, but it depends on an interaction between HC03- and pHf. Protons were found to have an inhibiting effect on the calcification process which can be overcome with a certain concentration of HC03-. This threshold substrate concentration increases with an increasing concentration of protons, i.e. decreasing pHf. Furthermore, f. huxleyi does not lose the ability to calcify when the cells are cultured noncalcifying for many generations. Recalcification will start instantaneously as soon as favorable carbonate chemistry conditions are reached. These findings imply that carbonate chemistry parameters should not be considered individually when assessing their effects on biological and biogeochemical processes, because complex interactions may occur.

The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi is one of the major producers of biogenic calcite in the ocean. lt has been studied extensively with regard to biogeochemical processes and the global carbon cycle. However, the process of calcification in this microalga is still not completely understood. In this Master's thesis, the limiting parameters of the marine carbonate system for calcification in E. huxleyi were investigated. In two different approaches, cultures of E. huxleyi were grown under carbonate chemistry conditions that suppressed calcification (low DIC and low pH) resulting in non-calcifying cells. Subsequently, the carbonate chemistry conditions were altered either by external manipulation or by the physiological processes of the cells themselves, eventually reaching favorable conditions for calcification. The carbonate chemistry conditions and the degree of calcification were examined. The results of this thesis confirm bicarbonate (HC03-) as main substrate for calcification in E. huxleyi, but they also suggest a supportive role for carbon dioxide (C02). Further, calcification is not regulated by the substrates or any other carbonate chemistry parameter alone, but it depends on an interaction between HC03- and pHf. Protons were found to have an inhibiting effect on the calcification process which can be overcome with a certain concentration of HC03-. This threshold substrate concentration increases with an increasing concentration of protons, i.e. decreasing pHf. Furthermore, f. huxleyi does not lose the ability to calcify when the cells are cultured noncalcifying for many generations. Recalcification will start instantaneously as soon as favorable carbonate chemistry conditions are reached. These findings imply that carbonate chemistry parameters should not be considered individually when assessing their effects on biological and biogeochemical processes, because complex interactions may occur.

The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi is one of the major producers of biogenic calcite in the ocean. lt has been studied extensively with regard to biogeochemical processes and the global carbon cycle. However, the process of calcification in this microalga is still not completely understood. In this Master's thesis, the limiting parameters of the marine carbonate system for calcification in E. huxleyi were investigated. In two different approaches, cultures of E. huxleyi were grown under carbonate chemistry conditions that suppressed calcification (low DIC and low pH) resulting in non-calcifying cells. Subsequently, the carbonate chemistry conditions were altered either by external manipulation or by the physiological processes of the cells themselves, eventually reaching favorable conditions for calcification. The carbonate chemistry conditions and the degree of calcification were examined. The results of this thesis confirm bicarbonate (HC03-) as main substrate for calcification in E. huxleyi, but they also suggest a supportive role for carbon dioxide (C02). Further, calcification is not regulated by the substrates or any other carbonate chemistry parameter alone, but it depends on an interaction between HC03- and pHf. Protons were found to have an inhibiting effect on the calcification process which can be overcome with a certain concentration of HC03-. This threshold substrate concentration increases with an increasing concentration of protons, i.e. decreasing pHf. Furthermore, f. huxleyi does not lose the ability to calcify when the cells are cultured noncalcifying for many generations. Recalcification will start instantaneously as soon as favorable carbonate chemistry conditions are reached. These findings imply that carbonate chemistry parameters should not be considered individually when assessing their effects on biological and biogeochemical processes, because complex interactions may occur.

The coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi is one of the major producers of biogenic calcite in the ocean. lt has been studied extensively with regard to biogeochemical processes and the global carbon cycle. However, the process of calcification in this microalga is still not completely understood. In this Master's thesis, the limiting parameters of the marine carbonate system for calcification in E. huxleyi were investigated. In two different approaches, cultures of E. huxleyi were grown under carbonate chemistry conditions that suppressed calcification (low DIC and low pH) resulting in non-calcifying cells. Subsequently, the carbonate chemistry conditions were altered either by external manipulation or by the physiological processes of the cells themselves, eventually reaching favorable conditions for calcification. The carbonate chemistry conditions and the degree of calcification were examined. The results of this thesis confirm bicarbonate (HC03-) as main substrate for calcification in E. huxleyi, but they also suggest a supportive role for carbon dioxide (C02). Further, calcification is not regulated by the substrates or any other carbonate chemistry parameter alone, but it depends on an interaction between HC03- and pHf. Protons were found to have an inhibiting effect on the calcification process which can be overcome with a certain concentration of HC03-. This threshold substrate concentration increases with an increasing concentration of protons, i.e. decreasing pHf. Furthermore, f. huxleyi does not lose the ability to calcify when the cells are cultured noncalcifying for many generations. Recalcification will start instantaneously as soon as favorable carbonate chemistry conditions are reached. These findings imply that carbonate chemistry parameters should not be considered individually when assessing their effects on biological and biogeochemical processes, because complex interactions may occur.