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The effects of substrate misorientation angle direction and degree on the structural properties of N-polar GaN grown by a novel multi-step temperature epitaxial approach using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) substrates is investigated. The surface morphology and X-ray diffraction (XRD) rocking curves (RCs) for both symmetric and asymmetric Bragg peaks of the multi-step temperature N-polar GaN are compared to a material obtained in a two-step temperature process. In the latter the temperature in the second step was varied so that it corresponds to the growth temperatures in each of the steps of the multi-step process. Different step-flow patterns are obtained on the substrates with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees depending on whether its direction is towards the a-plane or the m-plane. In contrast, fora misorientation angle of 1 degrees towards the m-plane, the surface morphology of N-polar GaN is dominated by hexagonal hillocks when using the 2-step temperature process and a step meandering growth mode is observed when employing the multi-step temperature process. These results are discussed and explained in terms of kinetic and thermodynamic considerations. As the growth temperature of the GaN layer in the 2-step temperature process increases from 950 degrees C to 1100 degrees C, the surface roughness and RCs widths decrease for the three types of substrates indicating improved crystal quality at higher temperature. The multi-step epitaxial approach is shown to be beneficial for achieving smooth surface morphology and low defect density of N-polar GaN layers grown on C-face SiC substrates with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees and an RMS value of 1.5 nm over an area of 20 mu m x 20 mu m is attained when the substrate mis-cut is towards the m-plane., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; Veeco; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Areas NanoLund and Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University [2009-00971]; [2022-03139]

Ultra-thin high-Al content barrier layers can enable improved gate control and high-frequency operation of AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) but the precise composition control is very challenging. In this work, we investigate the compositional profiles of AlxGa1-xN/GaN HEMT structures with targeted Al content in the barrier layer, x = 0.50, 0.70, and 1, and thickness in the sub-10 nm range in correlation with the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) properties. The HEMT structures are grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition on SiC. The maximum Al content in the barrier layer, experimentally determined by scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, is found to be lower than that intended and the deviations from the designed structures increase progressively with increasing x. Compositionally sharp interface between GaN and Al0.46Ga0.54N and box-like Al profile is achieved for intended x similar to 0.50 while pronounced Al grading is found in the samples with intended x of 0.70 and 1, with a maximum Al content of 0.78 reached for the HEMT structure with intended AlN barrier layer. The impact of the experimentally determined Al profiles on the 2DEG properties, obtained by contactless and electrical Hall effect measurements and coupled with self-consistent solution of the Poisson-Schrodinger equation, is evaluated and discussed. It is shown that the observed deviations from the intended Al profiles have a negative effect on the 2DEG confinement and result in reduced mobility parameters, which have significant implications for the implementation of high-Al content AlGaN/GaN structures in high-frequency devices., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Veeco SiC CVD systems; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; Volvo Cars; ON Semiconductor; UMS; Region Skane SAAB; Swedish Research Council VR; SweGaN; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU; Linkoping Electron Microscopy Laboratory; ARTEMI [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish National Infrastructure in Advanced Electron Microscopy [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation for Strategic Research [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

Group-III nitrides have transformed solid-state lighting and are strategically positioned to revolutionize high-power and high-frequency electronics. To drive this development forward, a deep understanding of fundamental material properties, such as charge carrier behavior, is essential and can also unveil new and unforeseen applications. This underscores the necessity for novel characterization tools to study group-III nitride materials and devices. The optical Hall effect (OHE) emerges as a contactless method for exploring the transport and electronic properties of semiconductor materials, simultaneously offering insights into their dielectric function. This non-destructive technique employs spectroscopic ellipsometry at long wavelengths in the presence of a magnetic field and provides quantitative information on the charge carrier density, sign, mobility, and effective mass of individual layers in multilayer structures and bulk materials. In this paper, we explore the use of terahertz (THz) OHE to study the charge carrier properties in group-III nitride heterostructures and bulk material. Examples include graded AlGaN channel high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) structures for high-linearity devices, highlighting the different grading profiles and their impact on the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) properties. Next, we demonstrate the sensitivity of the THz OHE to distinguish the 2DEG anisotropic mobility parameters in N-polar GaN/AlGaN HEMTs and show that this anisotropy is induced by the step-like surface morphology. Finally, we present the temperature-dependent results on the charge carrier properties of 2DEG and bulk electrons in GaN with a focus on the effective mass parameter and review the effective mass parameters reported in the literature. These studies showcase the capabilities of the THz OHE for advancing the understanding and development of group-III materials and devices., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area Nano Lund; Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [ECCS 2329940]; EPSCoR RII Track-1: Emergent Quantum Materials and Technologies (EQUATE) [OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259, FA9550-23-1-0574 DEF]; University of Nebraska Foundation; J. A. Woollam Foundation

The anisotropic permittivity parameters of monoclinic single crystal lutetium oxyorthosilicate, Lu2SiO5 (LSO), have been determined in the terahertz spectral range. Using terahertz generalized spectroscopic ellipsometry (THz-GSE), we obtained the THz permittivities along the a, b, and c? crystal directions, which correspond to the ea; eb, and ec? on-diagonal tensor elements. The associated off diagonal tensor element eac? was also determined experimentally, which is required to describe LSO's optical response in the monoclinic a-c crystallographic plane. From the four tensor elements obtained in the model fit, we calculate the direction of the principal dielectric axes in the a-c plane. We find good agreementwhen comparing THz-GSE permittivities to the static permittivity tensors from previous infrared and density functional theory studies., Funding Agencies|Knut and Alice Wallenbergs Foundation [2018.0071]; Swedish Research Council VR Award [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research Grant [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems VINNOVA under the Competence Center Program [2022-03139]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research Award [FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]; University of Nebraska Foundation; NanoLund, Lund University; J. A. Woollam Foundation

The anisotropic permittivity parameters of monoclinic single crystal lutetium oxyorthosilicate, Lu2SiO5 (LSO), have been determined in the terahertz spectral range. Using terahertz generalized spectroscopic ellipsometry (THz-GSE), we obtained the THz permittivities along the a, b, and c? crystal directions, which correspond to the ea; eb, and ec? on-diagonal tensor elements. The associated off diagonal tensor element eac? was also determined experimentally, which is required to describe LSO's optical response in the monoclinic a-c crystallographic plane. From the four tensor elements obtained in the model fit, we calculate the direction of the principal dielectric axes in the a-c plane. We find good agreementwhen comparing THz-GSE permittivities to the static permittivity tensors from previous infrared and density functional theory studies., Funding Agencies|Knut and Alice Wallenbergs Foundation [2018.0071]; Swedish Research Council VR Award [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research Grant [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems VINNOVA under the Competence Center Program [2022-03139]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research Award [FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]; University of Nebraska Foundation; NanoLund, Lund University; J. A. Woollam Foundation

The anisotropic permittivity parameters of monoclinic single crystal lutetium oxyorthosilicate, Lu2SiO5 (LSO), have been determined in the terahertz spectral range. Using terahertz generalized spectroscopic ellipsometry (THz-GSE), we obtained the THz permittivities along the a, b, and c? crystal directions, which correspond to the ea; eb, and ec? on-diagonal tensor elements. The associated off diagonal tensor element eac? was also determined experimentally, which is required to describe LSO's optical response in the monoclinic a-c crystallographic plane. From the four tensor elements obtained in the model fit, we calculate the direction of the principal dielectric axes in the a-c plane. We find good agreementwhen comparing THz-GSE permittivities to the static permittivity tensors from previous infrared and density functional theory studies., Funding Agencies|Knut and Alice Wallenbergs Foundation [2018.0071]; Swedish Research Council VR Award [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research Grant [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems VINNOVA under the Competence Center Program [2022-03139]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research Award [FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]; University of Nebraska Foundation; NanoLund, Lund University; J. A. Woollam Foundation

Electron effective mass is a fundamental material parameter defining the free charge carrier transport properties, but it is very challenging to be experimentally determined at high temperatures relevant to device operation. In this work, we obtain the electron effective mass parameters in a Si-doped GaN bulk substrate and epitaxial layers from terahertz (THz) and mid-infrared (MIR) optical Hall effect (OHE) measurements in the temperature range of 38-340 K. The OHE data are analyzed using the well-accepted Drude model to account for the free charge carrier contributions. A strong temperature dependence of the electron effective mass parameter in both bulk and epitaxial GaN with values ranging from (0.18 +/- 0.02) m(0) to (0.34 +/- 0.01) m(0) at a low temperature (38 K) and room temperature, respectively, is obtained from the THz OHE analysis. The observed effective mass enhancement with temperature is evaluated and discussed in view of conduction band nonparabolicity, polaron effect, strain, and deviations from the classical Drude behavior. On the other hand, the electron effective mass parameter determined by MIR OHE is found to be temperature independent with a value of (0.200 +/- 0.002) m(0). A possible explanation for the different findings from THz OHE and MIR OHE is proposed. (c) 2024 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; UMS; On Semiconductor; Swedish Research Council VR; Region Skane SAAB; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; SweGaN; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area NanoLund; Volvo Cars; Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU; National Science Foundation; EPSCoR RII Track-1: Emergent Quantum Materials and Technologies (EQUATE) [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; University of Nebraska Foundation; J. A. Woollam Foundation [2009-00971]; [ECCS 2329940]; [OIA-2044049]; [FA9550-19-S-0003]; [FA9550-21-1-0259]; [FA9550-23-1-0574 DEF]

We report growth optimization of Nitrogen (N)-polar GaN epitaxial layers by hot-wall metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on 4H-SiC (0001) with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees towards the [1120] direction. We find that when using a 2-step temperature process for the N-polar GaN growth, step bunching is persistent for a wide range of growth rates (7 nm/min to 49 nm/min) and V/III ratios (251 to 3774). This phenomenon is analyzed in terms of anisotropic step-flow growth and the Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, and their effects on the surface step height and step width. The N-polar GaN growth is further optimized by using 3-step and 4-step temperature processes and the layers are compared to those using the 2-step temperature process in terms of surface morphology and defect densities. It is shown that a significantly improved surface morphology with a root mean square of 1.4 nm and with low dislocation densities (screw dislocation density of 2.8 x 108 cm-2 and edge dislocation density of 1.3 x 109 cm-2) can be achieved for 4-step temperature process. The optimized growth conditions allow to overcome the step-bunching problem. The results are further discussed in view of Ga supersaturation and a general growth strategy for high-quality N-polar GaN growth is proposed., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) , Sweden [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University, Sweden; Chalmers University of technology, Sweden; Ericsson, Sweden; Epiluvac, Sweden; FMV, Sweden; Gotmic, Sweden; Hexagem, Sweden; Hitachi Energy, Sweden; On Semiconductor, Saab, Sweden; SweGaN, Sweden; UMS, Volvo Cars, Sweden; Swedish Research Council VR, Sweden [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, Sweden [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Sweden; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; NanoLund

Compositionally graded channel AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) offer a promising route to improve device linearity, which is necessary for low-noise radio-frequency amplifiers. In this work, we demonstrate different grading profiles of a 10-nm-thick AlxGa1-xN channel from x = 0 to x = 0.1 using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The growth process is developed by optimizing the channel grading and the channel-to-barrier transition. For this purpose, the Al-profiles and the interface sharpness, as determined from scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, are correlated with specific MOCVD process parameters. The results are linked to the channel properties (electron density, electron mobility, and sheet resistance) obtained by contactless Hall and terahertz optical Hall effect measurements coupled with simulations from solving self-consistently Poisson and Schrodinger equations. The impact of incorporating a thin AlN interlayer between the graded channel and the barrier layer on the HEMT properties is investigated and discussed. The optimized graded channel HEMT structure is found to have similarly high electron density (similar to 9 x 10(12) cm(-2)) as the non-graded conventional structure, though the mobility drops from similar to 2360 cm(2)/V s in the conventional to similar to 960 cm(2)/V s in the graded structure. The transconductance g(m) of the linearly graded channel HEMTs is shown to be flatter with smaller g(m) and g(m) as compared to the conventional non-graded channel HEMT implying improved device linearity. (c) 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology [2022-03139]; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University; KAW Foundation [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

We report growth optimization of Nitrogen (N)-polar GaN epitaxial layers by hot-wall metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on 4H-SiC (0001) with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees towards the [1120] direction. We find that when using a 2-step temperature process for the N-polar GaN growth, step bunching is persistent for a wide range of growth rates (7 nm/min to 49 nm/min) and V/III ratios (251 to 3774). This phenomenon is analyzed in terms of anisotropic step-flow growth and the Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, and their effects on the surface step height and step width. The N-polar GaN growth is further optimized by using 3-step and 4-step temperature processes and the layers are compared to those using the 2-step temperature process in terms of surface morphology and defect densities. It is shown that a significantly improved surface morphology with a root mean square of 1.4 nm and with low dislocation densities (screw dislocation density of 2.8 x 108 cm-2 and edge dislocation density of 1.3 x 109 cm-2) can be achieved for 4-step temperature process. The optimized growth conditions allow to overcome the step-bunching problem. The results are further discussed in view of Ga supersaturation and a general growth strategy for high-quality N-polar GaN growth is proposed., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) , Sweden [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University, Sweden; Chalmers University of technology, Sweden; Ericsson, Sweden; Epiluvac, Sweden; FMV, Sweden; Gotmic, Sweden; Hexagem, Sweden; Hitachi Energy, Sweden; On Semiconductor, Saab, Sweden; SweGaN, Sweden; UMS, Volvo Cars, Sweden; Swedish Research Council VR, Sweden [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, Sweden [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Sweden; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; NanoLund

Compositionally graded channel AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) offer a promising route to improve device linearity, which is necessary for low-noise radio-frequency amplifiers. In this work, we demonstrate different grading profiles of a 10-nm-thick AlxGa1-xN channel from x = 0 to x = 0.1 using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The growth process is developed by optimizing the channel grading and the channel-to-barrier transition. For this purpose, the Al-profiles and the interface sharpness, as determined from scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, are correlated with specific MOCVD process parameters. The results are linked to the channel properties (electron density, electron mobility, and sheet resistance) obtained by contactless Hall and terahertz optical Hall effect measurements coupled with simulations from solving self-consistently Poisson and Schrodinger equations. The impact of incorporating a thin AlN interlayer between the graded channel and the barrier layer on the HEMT properties is investigated and discussed. The optimized graded channel HEMT structure is found to have similarly high electron density (similar to 9 x 10(12) cm(-2)) as the non-graded conventional structure, though the mobility drops from similar to 2360 cm(2)/V s in the conventional to similar to 960 cm(2)/V s in the graded structure. The transconductance g(m) of the linearly graded channel HEMTs is shown to be flatter with smaller g(m) and g(m) as compared to the conventional non-graded channel HEMT implying improved device linearity. (c) 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology [2022-03139]; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University; KAW Foundation [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

Nitrogen-polar III-nitride heterostructures offer advantages over metal-polar structures in high frequency and high power applications. However, polarity control in III-nitrides is difficult to achieve as a result of unintentional polarity inversion domains (IDs). Herein, we present a comprehensive structural investigation with both atomic detail and thermodynamic analysis of the polarity evolution in low-and high-temperature AlN layers on on-axis and 4 degrees off-axis carbon-face 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A polarity control strategy has been developed by variation of thermodynamic Al supersaturation and substrate misorientation angle in order to achieve the desired growth mode and polarity. We demonstrate that IDs are completely suppressed for high-temperature AlN nucleation layers when a step-flow growth mode is achieved on the off-axis substrates. We employ this approach to demonstrate high quality N-polar epitaxial AlGaN/GaN/AlN heterostructures., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

Nitrogen-polar III-nitride heterostructures offer advantages over metal-polar structures in high frequency and high power applications. However, polarity control in III-nitrides is difficult to achieve as a result of unintentional polarity inversion domains (IDs). Herein, we present a comprehensive structural investigation with both atomic detail and thermodynamic analysis of the polarity evolution in low-and high-temperature AlN layers on on-axis and 4 degrees off-axis carbon-face 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A polarity control strategy has been developed by variation of thermodynamic Al supersaturation and substrate misorientation angle in order to achieve the desired growth mode and polarity. We demonstrate that IDs are completely suppressed for high-temperature AlN nucleation layers when a step-flow growth mode is achieved on the off-axis substrates. We employ this approach to demonstrate high quality N-polar epitaxial AlGaN/GaN/AlN heterostructures., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The transition to energy efficient smart grid and wireless communication with improved capacity require the development and optimization of next generation semiconductor technologies and electronic device components. Indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with bandgap energies ranging from 0.7 to 6.0 eV, facilitating their utilization in optoelectronics and photonics. The GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have enabled efficient and energy saving lighting, for which the Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 was awarded. GaN and AlN have high critical electric fields, high saturation carrier velocities and high thermal conductivities, which make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si) in next-generation power devices. The polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), formed at the interface of AlGaN and GaN has enabled GaN-based high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). These devices are suitable for high-power (HP) switching, power amplification and high-frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for next-generation 5G and 6G communication systems, radars, satellites, and a plethora of other related applications. Despite the immense efforts in the field, several material related issues still hinder the full exploitation of the unique properties of GaN-based semiconductors in HF and HP electronic applications. These limitations and challenges are related among others to: i) poor efficiency of p-type doping in GaN, ii) lack of linearity in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs used in low-noise RF amplifiers and, iii) MOCVD growth related difficulties in achieving ultra-thin and high Alcontent AlGaN barrier layers with compositionally sharp Al profiles in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs for HF applications. In this PhD thesis, we address the abovementioned issues by exploiting the hot-wall MOCVD combined with extensive mater, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No. 2016-05190 and 2022-03139, Linköping University, Chalmers University of Technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Region Skåne, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, and Volvo cars. We further acknowledge support from the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016-00889 and 2022-04812, Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14-055 and No. EM16-0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009-00971. The KAW Foundation is also acknowledged for support of the Linköping Electron Microscopy Laboratory.

Nitrogen-polar III-nitride heterostructures offer advantages over metal-polar structures in high frequency and high power applications. However, polarity control in III-nitrides is difficult to achieve as a result of unintentional polarity inversion domains (IDs). Herein, we present a comprehensive structural investigation with both atomic detail and thermodynamic analysis of the polarity evolution in low-and high-temperature AlN layers on on-axis and 4 degrees off-axis carbon-face 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A polarity control strategy has been developed by variation of thermodynamic Al supersaturation and substrate misorientation angle in order to achieve the desired growth mode and polarity. We demonstrate that IDs are completely suppressed for high-temperature AlN nucleation layers when a step-flow growth mode is achieved on the off-axis substrates. We employ this approach to demonstrate high quality N-polar epitaxial AlGaN/GaN/AlN heterostructures., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

Compositionally graded channel AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) offer a promising route to improve device linearity, which is necessary for low-noise radio-frequency amplifiers. In this work, we demonstrate different grading profiles of a 10-nm-thick AlxGa1-xN channel from x = 0 to x = 0.1 using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The growth process is developed by optimizing the channel grading and the channel-to-barrier transition. For this purpose, the Al-profiles and the interface sharpness, as determined from scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, are correlated with specific MOCVD process parameters. The results are linked to the channel properties (electron density, electron mobility, and sheet resistance) obtained by contactless Hall and terahertz optical Hall effect measurements coupled with simulations from solving self-consistently Poisson and Schrodinger equations. The impact of incorporating a thin AlN interlayer between the graded channel and the barrier layer on the HEMT properties is investigated and discussed. The optimized graded channel HEMT structure is found to have similarly high electron density (similar to 9 x 10(12) cm(-2)) as the non-graded conventional structure, though the mobility drops from similar to 2360 cm(2)/V s in the conventional to similar to 960 cm(2)/V s in the graded structure. The transconductance g(m) of the linearly graded channel HEMTs is shown to be flatter with smaller g(m) and g(m) as compared to the conventional non-graded channel HEMT implying improved device linearity. (c) 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology [2022-03139]; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University; KAW Foundation [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

We report growth optimization of Nitrogen (N)-polar GaN epitaxial layers by hot-wall metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on 4H-SiC (0001) with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees towards the [1120] direction. We find that when using a 2-step temperature process for the N-polar GaN growth, step bunching is persistent for a wide range of growth rates (7 nm/min to 49 nm/min) and V/III ratios (251 to 3774). This phenomenon is analyzed in terms of anisotropic step-flow growth and the Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, and their effects on the surface step height and step width. The N-polar GaN growth is further optimized by using 3-step and 4-step temperature processes and the layers are compared to those using the 2-step temperature process in terms of surface morphology and defect densities. It is shown that a significantly improved surface morphology with a root mean square of 1.4 nm and with low dislocation densities (screw dislocation density of 2.8 x 108 cm-2 and edge dislocation density of 1.3 x 109 cm-2) can be achieved for 4-step temperature process. The optimized growth conditions allow to overcome the step-bunching problem. The results are further discussed in view of Ga supersaturation and a general growth strategy for high-quality N-polar GaN growth is proposed., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) , Sweden [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University, Sweden; Chalmers University of technology, Sweden; Ericsson, Sweden; Epiluvac, Sweden; FMV, Sweden; Gotmic, Sweden; Hexagem, Sweden; Hitachi Energy, Sweden; On Semiconductor, Saab, Sweden; SweGaN, Sweden; UMS, Volvo Cars, Sweden; Swedish Research Council VR, Sweden [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, Sweden [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Sweden; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; NanoLund

The transition to energy efficient smart grid and wireless communication with improved capacity require the development and optimization of next generation semiconductor technologies and electronic device components. Indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with bandgap energies ranging from 0.7 to 6.0 eV, facilitating their utilization in optoelectronics and photonics. The GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have enabled efficient and energy saving lighting, for which the Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 was awarded. GaN and AlN have high critical electric fields, high saturation carrier velocities and high thermal conductivities, which make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si) in next-generation power devices. The polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), formed at the interface of AlGaN and GaN has enabled GaN-based high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). These devices are suitable for high-power (HP) switching, power amplification and high-frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for next-generation 5G and 6G communication systems, radars, satellites, and a plethora of other related applications. Despite the immense efforts in the field, several material related issues still hinder the full exploitation of the unique properties of GaN-based semiconductors in HF and HP electronic applications. These limitations and challenges are related among others to: i) poor efficiency of p-type doping in GaN, ii) lack of linearity in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs used in low-noise RF amplifiers and, iii) MOCVD growth related difficulties in achieving ultra-thin and high Alcontent AlGaN barrier layers with compositionally sharp Al profiles in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs for HF applications. In this PhD thesis, we address the abovementioned issues by exploiting the hot-wall MOCVD combined with extensive mater, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No. 2016-05190 and 2022-03139, Linköping University, Chalmers University of Technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Region Skåne, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, and Volvo cars. We further acknowledge support from the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016-00889 and 2022-04812, Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14-055 and No. EM16-0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009-00971. The KAW Foundation is also acknowledged for support of the Linköping Electron Microscopy Laboratory.

Compositionally graded channel AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) offer a promising route to improve device linearity, which is necessary for low-noise radio-frequency amplifiers. In this work, we demonstrate different grading profiles of a 10-nm-thick AlxGa1-xN channel from x = 0 to x = 0.1 using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The growth process is developed by optimizing the channel grading and the channel-to-barrier transition. For this purpose, the Al-profiles and the interface sharpness, as determined from scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, are correlated with specific MOCVD process parameters. The results are linked to the channel properties (electron density, electron mobility, and sheet resistance) obtained by contactless Hall and terahertz optical Hall effect measurements coupled with simulations from solving self-consistently Poisson and Schrodinger equations. The impact of incorporating a thin AlN interlayer between the graded channel and the barrier layer on the HEMT properties is investigated and discussed. The optimized graded channel HEMT structure is found to have similarly high electron density (similar to 9 x 10(12) cm(-2)) as the non-graded conventional structure, though the mobility drops from similar to 2360 cm(2)/V s in the conventional to similar to 960 cm(2)/V s in the graded structure. The transconductance g(m) of the linearly graded channel HEMTs is shown to be flatter with smaller g(m) and g(m) as compared to the conventional non-graded channel HEMT implying improved device linearity. (c) 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology [2022-03139]; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University; KAW Foundation [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

We report growth optimization of Nitrogen (N)-polar GaN epitaxial layers by hot-wall metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on 4H-SiC (0001) with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees towards the [1120] direction. We find that when using a 2-step temperature process for the N-polar GaN growth, step bunching is persistent for a wide range of growth rates (7 nm/min to 49 nm/min) and V/III ratios (251 to 3774). This phenomenon is analyzed in terms of anisotropic step-flow growth and the Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, and their effects on the surface step height and step width. The N-polar GaN growth is further optimized by using 3-step and 4-step temperature processes and the layers are compared to those using the 2-step temperature process in terms of surface morphology and defect densities. It is shown that a significantly improved surface morphology with a root mean square of 1.4 nm and with low dislocation densities (screw dislocation density of 2.8 x 108 cm-2 and edge dislocation density of 1.3 x 109 cm-2) can be achieved for 4-step temperature process. The optimized growth conditions allow to overcome the step-bunching problem. The results are further discussed in view of Ga supersaturation and a general growth strategy for high-quality N-polar GaN growth is proposed., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) , Sweden [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University, Sweden; Chalmers University of technology, Sweden; Ericsson, Sweden; Epiluvac, Sweden; FMV, Sweden; Gotmic, Sweden; Hexagem, Sweden; Hitachi Energy, Sweden; On Semiconductor, Saab, Sweden; SweGaN, Sweden; UMS, Volvo Cars, Sweden; Swedish Research Council VR, Sweden [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, Sweden [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Sweden; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; NanoLund

We report growth optimization of Nitrogen (N)-polar GaN epitaxial layers by hot-wall metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy on 4H-SiC (0001) with a misorientation angle of 4 degrees towards the [1120] direction. We find that when using a 2-step temperature process for the N-polar GaN growth, step bunching is persistent for a wide range of growth rates (7 nm/min to 49 nm/min) and V/III ratios (251 to 3774). This phenomenon is analyzed in terms of anisotropic step-flow growth and the Ehrlich-Schwoebel barrier, and their effects on the surface step height and step width. The N-polar GaN growth is further optimized by using 3-step and 4-step temperature processes and the layers are compared to those using the 2-step temperature process in terms of surface morphology and defect densities. It is shown that a significantly improved surface morphology with a root mean square of 1.4 nm and with low dislocation densities (screw dislocation density of 2.8 x 108 cm-2 and edge dislocation density of 1.3 x 109 cm-2) can be achieved for 4-step temperature process. The optimized growth conditions allow to overcome the step-bunching problem. The results are further discussed in view of Ga supersaturation and a general growth strategy for high-quality N-polar GaN growth is proposed., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) , Sweden [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University, Sweden; Chalmers University of technology, Sweden; Ericsson, Sweden; Epiluvac, Sweden; FMV, Sweden; Gotmic, Sweden; Hexagem, Sweden; Hitachi Energy, Sweden; On Semiconductor, Saab, Sweden; SweGaN, Sweden; UMS, Volvo Cars, Sweden; Swedish Research Council VR, Sweden [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research, Sweden [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Sweden; Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]; NanoLund

Compositionally graded channel AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) offer a promising route to improve device linearity, which is necessary for low-noise radio-frequency amplifiers. In this work, we demonstrate different grading profiles of a 10-nm-thick AlxGa1-xN channel from x = 0 to x = 0.1 using hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The growth process is developed by optimizing the channel grading and the channel-to-barrier transition. For this purpose, the Al-profiles and the interface sharpness, as determined from scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, are correlated with specific MOCVD process parameters. The results are linked to the channel properties (electron density, electron mobility, and sheet resistance) obtained by contactless Hall and terahertz optical Hall effect measurements coupled with simulations from solving self-consistently Poisson and Schrodinger equations. The impact of incorporating a thin AlN interlayer between the graded channel and the barrier layer on the HEMT properties is investigated and discussed. The optimized graded channel HEMT structure is found to have similarly high electron density (similar to 9 x 10(12) cm(-2)) as the non-graded conventional structure, though the mobility drops from similar to 2360 cm(2)/V s in the conventional to similar to 960 cm(2)/V s in the graded structure. The transconductance g(m) of the linearly graded channel HEMTs is shown to be flatter with smaller g(m) and g(m) as compared to the conventional non-graded channel HEMT implying improved device linearity. (c) 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA); Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology [2022-03139]; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane SAAB; SweGaN; Volvo Cars; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University; KAW Foundation [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Research Council and the Foundation [RIF14-055, EM16-0024, STP19-0008]; [2009-00971]; [2021-00171]; [RIF21-0026]

Nitrogen-polar III-nitride heterostructures offer advantages over metal-polar structures in high frequency and high power applications. However, polarity control in III-nitrides is difficult to achieve as a result of unintentional polarity inversion domains (IDs). Herein, we present a comprehensive structural investigation with both atomic detail and thermodynamic analysis of the polarity evolution in low-and high-temperature AlN layers on on-axis and 4 degrees off-axis carbon-face 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A polarity control strategy has been developed by variation of thermodynamic Al supersaturation and substrate misorientation angle in order to achieve the desired growth mode and polarity. We demonstrate that IDs are completely suppressed for high-temperature AlN nucleation layers when a step-flow growth mode is achieved on the off-axis substrates. We employ this approach to demonstrate high quality N-polar epitaxial AlGaN/GaN/AlN heterostructures., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The transition to energy efficient smart grid and wireless communication with improved capacity require the development and optimization of next generation semiconductor technologies and electronic device components. Indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with bandgap energies ranging from 0.7 to 6.0 eV, facilitating their utilization in optoelectronics and photonics. The GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have enabled efficient and energy saving lighting, for which the Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 was awarded. GaN and AlN have high critical electric fields, high saturation carrier velocities and high thermal conductivities, which make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si) in next-generation power devices. The polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), formed at the interface of AlGaN and GaN has enabled GaN-based high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). These devices are suitable for high-power (HP) switching, power amplification and high-frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for next-generation 5G and 6G communication systems, radars, satellites, and a plethora of other related applications. Despite the immense efforts in the field, several material related issues still hinder the full exploitation of the unique properties of GaN-based semiconductors in HF and HP electronic applications. These limitations and challenges are related among others to: i) poor efficiency of p-type doping in GaN, ii) lack of linearity in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs used in low-noise RF amplifiers and, iii) MOCVD growth related difficulties in achieving ultra-thin and high Alcontent AlGaN barrier layers with compositionally sharp Al profiles in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs for HF applications. In this PhD thesis, we address the abovementioned issues by exploiting the hot-wall MOCVD combined with extensive mater, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No. 2016-05190 and 2022-03139, Linköping University, Chalmers University of Technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Region Skåne, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, and Volvo cars. We further acknowledge support from the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016-00889 and 2022-04812, Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14-055 and No. EM16-0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009-00971. The KAW Foundation is also acknowledged for support of the Linköping Electron Microscopy Laboratory.

The transition to energy efficient smart grid and wireless communication with improved capacity require the development and optimization of next generation semiconductor technologies and electronic device components. Indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with bandgap energies ranging from 0.7 to 6.0 eV, facilitating their utilization in optoelectronics and photonics. The GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have enabled efficient and energy saving lighting, for which the Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 was awarded. GaN and AlN have high critical electric fields, high saturation carrier velocities and high thermal conductivities, which make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si) in next-generation power devices. The polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), formed at the interface of AlGaN and GaN has enabled GaN-based high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). These devices are suitable for high-power (HP) switching, power amplification and high-frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for next-generation 5G and 6G communication systems, radars, satellites, and a plethora of other related applications. Despite the immense efforts in the field, several material related issues still hinder the full exploitation of the unique properties of GaN-based semiconductors in HF and HP electronic applications. These limitations and challenges are related among others to: i) poor efficiency of p-type doping in GaN, ii) lack of linearity in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs used in low-noise RF amplifiers and, iii) MOCVD growth related difficulties in achieving ultra-thin and high Alcontent AlGaN barrier layers with compositionally sharp Al profiles in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs for HF applications. In this PhD thesis, we address the abovementioned issues by exploiting the hot-wall MOCVD combined with extensive mater, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No. 2016-05190 and 2022-03139, Linköping University, Chalmers University of Technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Region Skåne, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, and Volvo cars. We further acknowledge support from the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016-00889 and 2022-04812, Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14-055 and No. EM16-0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009-00971. The KAW Foundation is also acknowledged for support of the Linköping Electron Microscopy Laboratory.

Nitrogen-polar III-nitride heterostructures offer advantages over metal-polar structures in high frequency and high power applications. However, polarity control in III-nitrides is difficult to achieve as a result of unintentional polarity inversion domains (IDs). Herein, we present a comprehensive structural investigation with both atomic detail and thermodynamic analysis of the polarity evolution in low-and high-temperature AlN layers on on-axis and 4 degrees off-axis carbon-face 4H-SiC (000 (1) over bar) grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A polarity control strategy has been developed by variation of thermodynamic Al supersaturation and substrate misorientation angle in order to achieve the desired growth mode and polarity. We demonstrate that IDs are completely suppressed for high-temperature AlN nucleation layers when a step-flow growth mode is achieved on the off-axis substrates. We employ this approach to demonstrate high quality N-polar epitaxial AlGaN/GaN/AlN heterostructures., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) [2022-03139]; Lund University; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Region Skane; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889, 2022-04812]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

Al xGa 1−xN/GaN high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) structures are key components in electronic devices operating at gigahertz or higher frequencies. In order to optimize such HEMT structures, understanding their electronic response at high frequencies and room temperature is required. Here, we present a study of the room temperature free charge carrier properties of the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in HEMT structures with varying Al content in the Al xGa 1−xN barrier layers between x=0.07 and x=0.42⁠. We discuss and compare 2DEG sheet density, mobility, effective mass, sheet resistance, and scattering times, which are determined by theoretical calculations, contactless Hall effect, capacitance-voltage, Eddy current, and cavity-enhanced terahertz optical Hall effect (THz-OHE) measurements using a low-field permanent magnet (0.6 T). From our THz-OHE results, we observe that the measured mobility reduction from x=0.13 to x=0.42 is driven by the decrease in 2DEG scattering time, and not the change in effective mass. For x<0.42⁠, the 2DEG effective mass is found to be larger than for electrons in bulk GaN, which in turn, contributes to a decrease in the principally achievable mobility. From our theoretical calculations, we find that values close to 0.3 m0 can be explained by the combined effects of conduction band nonparabolicity, polarons, and hybridization of the electron wavefunction through penetration into the barrier layer., Funding Agencies|Foundation for Strategic Research, (2021-00171, RIF21-0026); Swedish Research Council VR, (2016-00889, 2022-04812); University of Nebraska Foundation; National Science Foundation, NSF, (NSF DMR 1808715); Air Force Office of Scientific Research, AFOSR, (FA9550-18-1-0360, FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259); Office of Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research, EPSCoR, (OIA-2044049); J. A. Woollam Foundation; Stiftelsen för Strategisk Forskning, SSF, (2009-00971, EM16-0024, RIF14-055, STP19-0008); VINNOVA, (2022-03139); Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse; Vetenskapsrådet, VR

The devolopment of group-III nitride semiconductor technology continues to expand rapidly over the last two decades. The indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with a wide bandgap range, spanning from infrared(IR) to deep-ultraviolet (UV), enabling their utilization in optoelectronic industry. The GaN-based light-emitting diode (LED) is already the commercial solution for efficient and energy saving lighting. Additionally, the physical properties of these materials such as the high critical electric field, the high saturation carrier velocity and the high thermal conductivity, make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si), and other wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) in power devices. More importantly, the polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), forming at the interfaces of these semiconductors, led to the fabrication of the GaN-based high electron mobility transistor (HEMT). This device is suitable for high power (HP) switching, power amplifiers and high frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for 5G communication systems, radars, satellites and a plethora of other related applications. Achieving the efficient GaN blue LED (Nobel Prize in Physics 2014), came as a result of (partially) solving several material issues of which, p-type GaN was of crucial importance. Since 1992, a lot of effort is being dedicated on the understanding and overcoming of the limitations hindering efficient p-type conductivity and low hole mobility in metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) grown p-GaN. The limitations arise from the fact that magnesium (Mg) is the only efficient p-type dopant for GaN so far and only a very small percentage ∼2% of the incorporated Mg is active at room temperature. More limitations come from its solubility in GaN and the crystal quality de, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No.2016−05190, Linköping University, Chalmers University of technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016 − 00889, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14 − 055 and No. EM16 − 0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No.2009 − 00971.

We report on the free charge carrier properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in an AlN/AlxGa1-xN high electron mobility transistor structure with a high aluminum content (x = 0.78). The 2DEG sheet density N s = ( 7.3 +/- 0.7 ) x 10 12 cm(-2), sheet mobility mu s = ( 270 +/- 40 ) cm(2)/(Vs), sheet resistance R- s = ( 3200 +/- 500 ) omega/ ?, and effective mass m( eff) = ( 0.63 +/- 0.04 ) m( 0) at low temperatures ( T = 5 K ) are determined by terahertz (THz) optical Hall effect measurements. The experimental 2DEG mobility in the channel is found within the expected range, and the sheet carrier density is in good agreement with self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations. However, a significant increase in the effective mass of 2DEG electrons at low temperatures is found in comparison with the respective value in bulk Al0.78Ga22N ( m( eff) = 0.334 m( 0)). Possible mechanisms for the enhanced 2DEG effective mass parameter are discussed and quantified using self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations .Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; United Monolithic Semiconductors (UMS); Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsradet (VR) [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant Stark forskningsmiljoe (SFO) Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [FA9550-18-1-0360, FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]

Herein, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaN layers doped with Mg atoms to the recognized optimum level of [Mg] approximate to 2 x 10(19) cm(-3) is performed. In a sequence of MOCVD runs, operational conditions, including temperature and flow rate of precursors, are maintained except for intentionally larger flows of hydrogen carrier gas fed into the reactor. By employing the largest hydrogen flow of 25 slm in this study, the performance of the as-grown Mg-doped GaN layers is certified by a room-temperature hole concentration of p approximate to 2 x 10(17) cm(-3) in the absence of any thermal activation treatment. Experimental evidence is delivered that the large amounts of hydrogen during the MOCVD growth can regulate the incorporation of the Mg atoms into GaN in a significant way so that MgH complex can coexist with a dominant and evidently electrically active isolated Mg-Ga acceptor., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), previously shown to enable superior III-nitride material quality and high performance devices, has been explored for Mg doping of GaN. We have investigated the Mg incorporation in a wide doping range ( 2.45 x 10( 18) cm(-3) up to 1.10 x 10(20) cm(-3)) and demonstrate GaN:Mg with low background impurity concentrations under optimized growth conditions. Dopant and impurity levels are discussed in view of Ga supersaturation, which provides a unified concept to explain the complexity of growth conditions impact on Mg acceptor incorporation and compensation. The results are analyzed in relation to the extended defects, revealed by scanning transmission electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and surface morphology, and in correlation with the electrical properties obtained by Hall effect and capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurements. This allows to establish a comprehensive picture of GaN:Mg growth by hot-wall MOCVD providing guidance for growth parameters optimization depending on the targeted application. We show that substantially lower H concentration as compared to Mg acceptors can be achieved in GaN:Mg without any in situ or post-growth annealing resulting in p-type conductivity in as-grown material. State-of-the-art p-GaN layers with a low resistivity and a high free-hole density (0.77 omega cm and 8.4 x 10( 17) cm(-3), respectively) are obtained after post-growth annealing demonstrating the viability of hot-wall MOCVD for growth of power electronic device structures. (C)2022 Author(s)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University [2009-00971]; KAW Foundation

We report on the free charge carrier properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in an AlN/AlxGa1-xN high electron mobility transistor structure with a high aluminum content (x = 0.78). The 2DEG sheet density N s = ( 7.3 +/- 0.7 ) x 10 12 cm(-2), sheet mobility mu s = ( 270 +/- 40 ) cm(2)/(Vs), sheet resistance R- s = ( 3200 +/- 500 ) omega/ ?, and effective mass m( eff) = ( 0.63 +/- 0.04 ) m( 0) at low temperatures ( T = 5 K ) are determined by terahertz (THz) optical Hall effect measurements. The experimental 2DEG mobility in the channel is found within the expected range, and the sheet carrier density is in good agreement with self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations. However, a significant increase in the effective mass of 2DEG electrons at low temperatures is found in comparison with the respective value in bulk Al0.78Ga22N ( m( eff) = 0.334 m( 0)). Possible mechanisms for the enhanced 2DEG effective mass parameter are discussed and quantified using self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations .Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; United Monolithic Semiconductors (UMS); Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsradet (VR) [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant Stark forskningsmiljoe (SFO) Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [FA9550-18-1-0360, FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]

Herein, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaN layers doped with Mg atoms to the recognized optimum level of [Mg] approximate to 2 x 10(19) cm(-3) is performed. In a sequence of MOCVD runs, operational conditions, including temperature and flow rate of precursors, are maintained except for intentionally larger flows of hydrogen carrier gas fed into the reactor. By employing the largest hydrogen flow of 25 slm in this study, the performance of the as-grown Mg-doped GaN layers is certified by a room-temperature hole concentration of p approximate to 2 x 10(17) cm(-3) in the absence of any thermal activation treatment. Experimental evidence is delivered that the large amounts of hydrogen during the MOCVD growth can regulate the incorporation of the Mg atoms into GaN in a significant way so that MgH complex can coexist with a dominant and evidently electrically active isolated Mg-Ga acceptor., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), previously shown to enable superior III-nitride material quality and high performance devices, has been explored for Mg doping of GaN. We have investigated the Mg incorporation in a wide doping range ( 2.45 x 10( 18) cm(-3) up to 1.10 x 10(20) cm(-3)) and demonstrate GaN:Mg with low background impurity concentrations under optimized growth conditions. Dopant and impurity levels are discussed in view of Ga supersaturation, which provides a unified concept to explain the complexity of growth conditions impact on Mg acceptor incorporation and compensation. The results are analyzed in relation to the extended defects, revealed by scanning transmission electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and surface morphology, and in correlation with the electrical properties obtained by Hall effect and capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurements. This allows to establish a comprehensive picture of GaN:Mg growth by hot-wall MOCVD providing guidance for growth parameters optimization depending on the targeted application. We show that substantially lower H concentration as compared to Mg acceptors can be achieved in GaN:Mg without any in situ or post-growth annealing resulting in p-type conductivity in as-grown material. State-of-the-art p-GaN layers with a low resistivity and a high free-hole density (0.77 omega cm and 8.4 x 10( 17) cm(-3), respectively) are obtained after post-growth annealing demonstrating the viability of hot-wall MOCVD for growth of power electronic device structures. (C)2022 Author(s)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University [2009-00971]; KAW Foundation

We investigate the interfaces and polarity domains at the atomic scale in epitaxial AlN and GaN/AlN grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor epitaxy on the carbon face of SiC. X-ray diffraction, potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet chemical etching, and scanning transmission electron microscopy combined provide an in-depth understanding of polarity evolution with the film thickness, which is crucial to optimize growth. The AlN grown in a 3D mode is found to exhibit N-polar pyramid-type structures at the AlN-SiC interface. However, a mixed N-polar and Al-polar region with Al-polarity domination along with inverted pyramid-type structures evolve with increasing film thickness. We identify inclined inversion domain boundaries and propose that incorporation of oxygen on the & lang;40-41 & rang; facets of the N-polar pyramids causes the polarity inversion. We find that mixed-polar AlN is common and easily etched and remains undetected by solely relying on KOH etching. Atomic scale electron microscopy is, therefore, needed to accurately determine the polarity. The polarity of GaN grown on mixed-polar AlN is further shown to undergo complex evolution with the film thickness, which is discussed in the light of growth mechanisms and polarity determination methods., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA)Vinnova [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; ABB; EricssonEricsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VRSwedish Research Council [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic ResearchSwedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF 14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

We investigate the interfaces and polarity domains at the atomic scale in epitaxial AlN and GaN/AlN grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor epitaxy on the carbon face of SiC. X-ray diffraction, potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet chemical etching, and scanning transmission electron microscopy combined provide an in-depth understanding of polarity evolution with the film thickness, which is crucial to optimize growth. The AlN grown in a 3D mode is found to exhibit N-polar pyramid-type structures at the AlN-SiC interface. However, a mixed N-polar and Al-polar region with Al-polarity domination along with inverted pyramid-type structures evolve with increasing film thickness. We identify inclined inversion domain boundaries and propose that incorporation of oxygen on the & lang;40-41 & rang; facets of the N-polar pyramids causes the polarity inversion. We find that mixed-polar AlN is common and easily etched and remains undetected by solely relying on KOH etching. Atomic scale electron microscopy is, therefore, needed to accurately determine the polarity. The polarity of GaN grown on mixed-polar AlN is further shown to undergo complex evolution with the film thickness, which is discussed in the light of growth mechanisms and polarity determination methods., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA)Vinnova [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; ABB; EricssonEricsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VRSwedish Research Council [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic ResearchSwedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF 14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

Structural defects in Mg-doped GaN were analyzed using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy. The defects, in the shape of inverted pyramids, appear at high concentrations of incorporated Mg, which also lead to a reduction in free-hole concentration in Mg doped GaN. Detailed analysis pinpoints the arrangement of atoms in and around the defects and verify the presence of a well-defined layer of Mg at all facets, including the inclined facets. Our observations have resulted in a model of the pyramid-shaped defect, including structural displacements and compositional replacements, which is verified by image simulations. Finally, the total concentration of Mg atoms bound to these defects were evaluated, enabling a correlation between inactive and defect-bound dopants., Funding Agencies|Linkoping University

Structural defects in Mg-doped GaN were analyzed using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy. The defects, in the shape of inverted pyramids, appear at high concentrations of incorporated Mg, which also lead to a reduction in free-hole concentration in Mg doped GaN. Detailed analysis pinpoints the arrangement of atoms in and around the defects and verify the presence of a well-defined layer of Mg at all facets, including the inclined facets. Our observations have resulted in a model of the pyramid-shaped defect, including structural displacements and compositional replacements, which is verified by image simulations. Finally, the total concentration of Mg atoms bound to these defects were evaluated, enabling a correlation between inactive and defect-bound dopants., Funding Agencies|Linkoping University

Structural defects in Mg-doped GaN were analyzed using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy. The defects, in the shape of inverted pyramids, appear at high concentrations of incorporated Mg, which also lead to a reduction in free-hole concentration in Mg doped GaN. Detailed analysis pinpoints the arrangement of atoms in and around the defects and verify the presence of a well-defined layer of Mg at all facets, including the inclined facets. Our observations have resulted in a model of the pyramid-shaped defect, including structural displacements and compositional replacements, which is verified by image simulations. Finally, the total concentration of Mg atoms bound to these defects were evaluated, enabling a correlation between inactive and defect-bound dopants., Funding Agencies|Linkoping University

We report on the free charge carrier properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in an AlN/AlxGa1-xN high electron mobility transistor structure with a high aluminum content (x = 0.78). The 2DEG sheet density N s = ( 7.3 +/- 0.7 ) x 10 12 cm(-2), sheet mobility mu s = ( 270 +/- 40 ) cm(2)/(Vs), sheet resistance R- s = ( 3200 +/- 500 ) omega/ ?, and effective mass m( eff) = ( 0.63 +/- 0.04 ) m( 0) at low temperatures ( T = 5 K ) are determined by terahertz (THz) optical Hall effect measurements. The experimental 2DEG mobility in the channel is found within the expected range, and the sheet carrier density is in good agreement with self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations. However, a significant increase in the effective mass of 2DEG electrons at low temperatures is found in comparison with the respective value in bulk Al0.78Ga22N ( m( eff) = 0.334 m( 0)). Possible mechanisms for the enhanced 2DEG effective mass parameter are discussed and quantified using self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations .Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; United Monolithic Semiconductors (UMS); Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsradet (VR) [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant Stark forskningsmiljoe (SFO) Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [FA9550-18-1-0360, FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]

Herein, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaN layers doped with Mg atoms to the recognized optimum level of [Mg] approximate to 2 x 10(19) cm(-3) is performed. In a sequence of MOCVD runs, operational conditions, including temperature and flow rate of precursors, are maintained except for intentionally larger flows of hydrogen carrier gas fed into the reactor. By employing the largest hydrogen flow of 25 slm in this study, the performance of the as-grown Mg-doped GaN layers is certified by a room-temperature hole concentration of p approximate to 2 x 10(17) cm(-3) in the absence of any thermal activation treatment. Experimental evidence is delivered that the large amounts of hydrogen during the MOCVD growth can regulate the incorporation of the Mg atoms into GaN in a significant way so that MgH complex can coexist with a dominant and evidently electrically active isolated Mg-Ga acceptor., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), previously shown to enable superior III-nitride material quality and high performance devices, has been explored for Mg doping of GaN. We have investigated the Mg incorporation in a wide doping range ( 2.45 x 10( 18) cm(-3) up to 1.10 x 10(20) cm(-3)) and demonstrate GaN:Mg with low background impurity concentrations under optimized growth conditions. Dopant and impurity levels are discussed in view of Ga supersaturation, which provides a unified concept to explain the complexity of growth conditions impact on Mg acceptor incorporation and compensation. The results are analyzed in relation to the extended defects, revealed by scanning transmission electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and surface morphology, and in correlation with the electrical properties obtained by Hall effect and capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurements. This allows to establish a comprehensive picture of GaN:Mg growth by hot-wall MOCVD providing guidance for growth parameters optimization depending on the targeted application. We show that substantially lower H concentration as compared to Mg acceptors can be achieved in GaN:Mg without any in situ or post-growth annealing resulting in p-type conductivity in as-grown material. State-of-the-art p-GaN layers with a low resistivity and a high free-hole density (0.77 omega cm and 8.4 x 10( 17) cm(-3), respectively) are obtained after post-growth annealing demonstrating the viability of hot-wall MOCVD for growth of power electronic device structures. (C)2022 Author(s)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University [2009-00971]; KAW Foundation

We investigate the interfaces and polarity domains at the atomic scale in epitaxial AlN and GaN/AlN grown by hot-wall metal organic chemical vapor epitaxy on the carbon face of SiC. X-ray diffraction, potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet chemical etching, and scanning transmission electron microscopy combined provide an in-depth understanding of polarity evolution with the film thickness, which is crucial to optimize growth. The AlN grown in a 3D mode is found to exhibit N-polar pyramid-type structures at the AlN-SiC interface. However, a mixed N-polar and Al-polar region with Al-polarity domination along with inverted pyramid-type structures evolve with increasing film thickness. We identify inclined inversion domain boundaries and propose that incorporation of oxygen on the & lang;40-41 & rang; facets of the N-polar pyramids causes the polarity inversion. We find that mixed-polar AlN is common and easily etched and remains undetected by solely relying on KOH etching. Atomic scale electron microscopy is, therefore, needed to accurately determine the polarity. The polarity of GaN grown on mixed-polar AlN is further shown to undergo complex evolution with the film thickness, which is discussed in the light of growth mechanisms and polarity determination methods., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA)Vinnova [2016-05190]; Linkoeping University; Chalmers University of Technology; ABB; EricssonEricsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VRSwedish Research Council [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic ResearchSwedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF 14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The devolopment of group-III nitride semiconductor technology continues to expand rapidly over the last two decades. The indium nitride (InN), gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum nitride (AlN) compounds and their alloys are direct bandgap semiconductors with a wide bandgap range, spanning from infrared(IR) to deep-ultraviolet (UV), enabling their utilization in optoelectronic industry. The GaN-based light-emitting diode (LED) is already the commercial solution for efficient and energy saving lighting. Additionally, the physical properties of these materials such as the high critical electric field, the high saturation carrier velocity and the high thermal conductivity, make them promising candidates for replacing silicon (Si), and other wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) in power devices. More importantly, the polarization-induced two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), forming at the interfaces of these semiconductors, led to the fabrication of the GaN-based high electron mobility transistor (HEMT). This device is suitable for high power (HP) switching, power amplifiers and high frequency (HF) applications in the millimeter-wave range up to THz frequencies. As such, HEMTs are suitable for 5G communication systems, radars, satellites and a plethora of other related applications. Achieving the efficient GaN blue LED (Nobel Prize in Physics 2014), came as a result of (partially) solving several material issues of which, p-type GaN was of crucial importance. Since 1992, a lot of effort is being dedicated on the understanding and overcoming of the limitations hindering efficient p-type conductivity and low hole mobility in metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) grown p-GaN. The limitations arise from the fact that magnesium (Mg) is the only efficient p-type dopant for GaN so far and only a very small percentage ∼2% of the incorporated Mg is active at room temperature. More limitations come from its solubility in GaN and the crystal quality de, Funding agencies: The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program Grant No.2016−05190, Linköping University, Chalmers University of technology, Ericsson, Epiluvac, FMV, Gotmic, Hexagem, Hitachi Energy, On Semiconductor, Saab, SweGaN, UMS, the Swedish Research Council VR under Award No. 2016 − 00889, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research under Grants No. RIF14 − 055 and No. EM16 − 0024, and the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linköping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No.2009 − 00971.

Structural defects in Mg-doped GaN were analyzed using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy. The defects, in the shape of inverted pyramids, appear at high concentrations of incorporated Mg, which also lead to a reduction in free-hole concentration in Mg doped GaN. Detailed analysis pinpoints the arrangement of atoms in and around the defects and verify the presence of a well-defined layer of Mg at all facets, including the inclined facets. Our observations have resulted in a model of the pyramid-shaped defect, including structural displacements and compositional replacements, which is verified by image simulations. Finally, the total concentration of Mg atoms bound to these defects were evaluated, enabling a correlation between inactive and defect-bound dopants., Funding Agencies|Linkoping University

Structural defects in Mg-doped GaN were analyzed using high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy. The defects, in the shape of inverted pyramids, appear at high concentrations of incorporated Mg, which also lead to a reduction in free-hole concentration in Mg doped GaN. Detailed analysis pinpoints the arrangement of atoms in and around the defects and verify the presence of a well-defined layer of Mg at all facets, including the inclined facets. Our observations have resulted in a model of the pyramid-shaped defect, including structural displacements and compositional replacements, which is verified by image simulations. Finally, the total concentration of Mg atoms bound to these defects were evaluated, enabling a correlation between inactive and defect-bound dopants., Funding Agencies|Linkoping University

Herein, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaN layers doped with Mg atoms to the recognized optimum level of [Mg] approximate to 2 x 10(19) cm(-3) is performed. In a sequence of MOCVD runs, operational conditions, including temperature and flow rate of precursors, are maintained except for intentionally larger flows of hydrogen carrier gas fed into the reactor. By employing the largest hydrogen flow of 25 slm in this study, the performance of the as-grown Mg-doped GaN layers is certified by a room-temperature hole concentration of p approximate to 2 x 10(17) cm(-3) in the absence of any thermal activation treatment. Experimental evidence is delivered that the large amounts of hydrogen during the MOCVD growth can regulate the incorporation of the Mg atoms into GaN in a significant way so that MgH complex can coexist with a dominant and evidently electrically active isolated Mg-Ga acceptor., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

We report on the free charge carrier properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in an AlN/AlxGa1-xN high electron mobility transistor structure with a high aluminum content (x = 0.78). The 2DEG sheet density N s = ( 7.3 +/- 0.7 ) x 10 12 cm(-2), sheet mobility mu s = ( 270 +/- 40 ) cm(2)/(Vs), sheet resistance R- s = ( 3200 +/- 500 ) omega/ ?, and effective mass m( eff) = ( 0.63 +/- 0.04 ) m( 0) at low temperatures ( T = 5 K ) are determined by terahertz (THz) optical Hall effect measurements. The experimental 2DEG mobility in the channel is found within the expected range, and the sheet carrier density is in good agreement with self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations. However, a significant increase in the effective mass of 2DEG electrons at low temperatures is found in comparison with the respective value in bulk Al0.78Ga22N ( m( eff) = 0.334 m( 0)). Possible mechanisms for the enhanced 2DEG effective mass parameter are discussed and quantified using self-consistent Poisson-Schrodinger calculations .Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; United Monolithic Semiconductors (UMS); Volvo Cars; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsradet (VR) [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoeping University, Faculty Grant Stark forskningsmiljoe (SFO) Mat LiU [2009-00971]; National Science Foundation [DMR 1808715, OIA-2044049]; Air Force Office of Scientific Research [FA9550-18-1-0360, FA9550-19-S-0003, FA9550-21-1-0259]

Herein, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) of GaN layers doped with Mg atoms to the recognized optimum level of [Mg] approximate to 2 x 10(19) cm(-3) is performed. In a sequence of MOCVD runs, operational conditions, including temperature and flow rate of precursors, are maintained except for intentionally larger flows of hydrogen carrier gas fed into the reactor. By employing the largest hydrogen flow of 25 slm in this study, the performance of the as-grown Mg-doped GaN layers is certified by a room-temperature hole concentration of p approximate to 2 x 10(17) cm(-3) in the absence of any thermal activation treatment. Experimental evidence is delivered that the large amounts of hydrogen during the MOCVD growth can regulate the incorporation of the Mg atoms into GaN in a significant way so that MgH complex can coexist with a dominant and evidently electrically active isolated Mg-Ga acceptor., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University, Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU [2009-00971]

The hot-wall metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), previously shown to enable superior III-nitride material quality and high performance devices, has been explored for Mg doping of GaN. We have investigated the Mg incorporation in a wide doping range ( 2.45 x 10( 18) cm(-3) up to 1.10 x 10(20) cm(-3)) and demonstrate GaN:Mg with low background impurity concentrations under optimized growth conditions. Dopant and impurity levels are discussed in view of Ga supersaturation, which provides a unified concept to explain the complexity of growth conditions impact on Mg acceptor incorporation and compensation. The results are analyzed in relation to the extended defects, revealed by scanning transmission electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and surface morphology, and in correlation with the electrical properties obtained by Hall effect and capacitance-voltage (C-V) measurements. This allows to establish a comprehensive picture of GaN:Mg growth by hot-wall MOCVD providing guidance for growth parameters optimization depending on the targeted application. We show that substantially lower H concentration as compared to Mg acceptors can be achieved in GaN:Mg without any in situ or post-growth annealing resulting in p-type conductivity in as-grown material. State-of-the-art p-GaN layers with a low resistivity and a high free-hole density (0.77 omega cm and 8.4 x 10( 17) cm(-3), respectively) are obtained after post-growth annealing demonstrating the viability of hot-wall MOCVD for growth of power electronic device structures. (C)2022 Author(s)., Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) under the Competence Center Program [2016-05190]; Linkoping University; Chalmers University of Technology; Ericsson; Epiluvac; FMV; Gotmic; Hexagem; Hitachi Energy; On Semiconductor; Saab; SweGaN; UMS; Swedish Research Council VR [2016-00889]; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research [RIF14-055, RIF14-0074, EM16-0024]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University [2009-00971]; KAW Foundation