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This essay suggests that helping people learn any subject better is a job for everybody who teaches that subject, from preschool to Ph.D. To do the job well at any level requires knowing what teachers and students at all the other levels need to do, and need to have done for them, subject by subject. Most educators have ignored the seamless nature of levels of learning in a particular subject. They do this because they are usually preoccupied with one particular level of schooling, and because they do not think of organizing or reforming things by starting with subject matter or curriculum. They have focused on the processes, not the content, of education. This paper argues that curriculum, the subject matter, needs to come first in educational reform. A hypothetical eighth grade history course is described in which inclusive strategies of reform have improved the course and the education system as a whole. The paper traces the work of commissions and conferences on educational reform. The importance of close collaboration based on mutual respect among practitioners at the school, college, and graduate levels is discussed. United States Department of Education standards and state frameworks are cited for the development of criteria to establish national content standards that will turn the idea of multilevel collaboration into practice. (DK)

The California Assessment of Academic Achievement Act of 1995 mandates the development and adoption of statewide academically rigorous content and performance standards in core curriculum areas. This brochure summarizes the findings of the Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) standards task force. The brochure is organized around the following questions: (1) What must effective statewide standards look like? (2) What must be done to avoid the "reinvent-the-wheel" syndrome? (3) What must happen to guarantee a standards-based system? and (4) What questions must still be answered? A glossary, a list of task force members, and an appendix showing the status of academic standards-setting across the 50 states as of April 1995 are included. (LMI)

Resource-based learning (RBL) is one of the most useful, successful, and acceptable approaches to curriculum delivery, easily adapted to different styles of teaching and learning. It brings together all of the resource elements--tutor, learning resources, and student--into a learning partnership. Two essential aspects of RBL are its flexibility--that is, its ability to cope with a variety of learning styles--and its promotion of student autonomy. The introduction of RBL has practical implications for further education colleges (technical institutes). Students need to develop more autonomy in the way they study and use information, through guidance from tutors. Tutors need to develop technical, human, and conceptual skills to be able to empower students with autonomy. A framework of learning resources and space in which to use them is needed to support students and tutors, upon which students can rely for all their learning needs. The college library is central to the learning process as the provider of a wide-ranging service based on a comprehensive collection of fully integrated learning resources. The issues and problems related to the implementation of RBL are partnership, quality issues, staff development, student autonomy, learning resources framework, technology of delivery, introduction and use of forms of RBL, and provision of RBL guides. Each requires a strategy to deal with it involving tutors, nonteaching staff, students, and senior college management. (Appendixes include 20 references and sample 5-year strategic plan for a further education college.) (YLB)

This paper discusses whether thinking skills can be taught. The concept of teaching thinking goes back to the ancient Greeks. The notion of inborn intelligence was dominant until the 1960s but was challenged by the constructivism theory developed by Vygotsky. The discussion is divided into 5 sections: (1) describing thinking and intelligence; (2) main approaches used by teachers to teach thinking; (3) evaluation of previous publications from the United Kingdom and the United States; (4) conclusions drawn from previous studies; and (5) recommendations for the future. (Contains 24 references.) (YDS)

Meant primarily as a brief synthesis for consultants and supervisors in state departments of education, this statement represents an overview of the prevailing instructional scene. It notes the current swing to the right in educational approaches, looks at the emerging trends in federal concerns, examines the current thinking concerning teaching style and cognitive style, and discusses the implications of these matters for the state department of education. Five steps are suggested as a coping strategy: rebuild morale and desire in educators, deal with public dissatisfaction issue by issue, determine curricular weak points, combine inservice and dissemination strategies, and increase the interaction between the state department of education staff and dissemination personnel. (Author/IRT)

A definition of Citizenship (CE) should include: (1) a general statement which focuses on the CE domain, (2) a statement of underlying principles, (3) a list of included content areas, (4) specification of learner outcomes, (5) a list of instructional modes, and (6) a description of the kinds of institutions included in the CE movement. Citizenship Education is "an educational effort which seeks to teach all citizens the knowledge, skills, and behaviors which will dispose and enable them to participate effectively in a democratic society in a manner which contributes to the common welfare and is personally satisfying." CE related programs or disciplines include community, economic, energy, environmental, law-related, values, and multicultural education; interpersonal skills; the social sciences; and political-participation training. Learner outcomes are formulated according to knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained. Knowledge of institutions and of major issues past and present is necessary. Inquiry, interpersonal, and action skills as well as attitudes of commitment and respect should be developed. Modes of instruction extend beyond the traditional to parental and community involvement and use of the media. CE programs will be more successful if they consider the institutional climate and interpersonal relationships, and if they involve institutions such as government, business, labor, religious organizations, and youth service groups. (KC)

Each year, the Policies Commission for Business and Economic Education develops statements regarding business education. The following are among the commission's guidelines regarding planning the business education curriculum for the new century: (1) making business education an integral and equal partner within schools' educational communities requires that business educators proactively respond to industry needs and connect with changing student learning styles; (2) preparing students for emerging careers in e-commerce and other job clusters requires helping them develop both business knowledge/skills and people skills; (3) business educators must teach soft skills by modeling behavior, establishing the classroom culture, and interacting daily with students in a project-based environment; (4) at all educational levels, business educators must transform classrooms into virtual enterprises and help learners apply their learning "just-in-time" for the business's daily operation. (The following attachments constitute approximately 80% of this document: sample scope and sequence for business education courses; a sample philosophy and general goals for graduates; rationales and descriptions of 22 business education courses; information about the Missouri business education competencies; and an overview of integration and articulation that lists five integration models along with the benefits and challenges of integration and guidelines for articulating business education.) (MN)

New Jersey's Task Force on Education and Workforce Quality was formed in 1995 to develop recommendations to ensure a strong, mutually beneficial relationship between New Jersey's education system and the needs of its evolving labor market. The task force conducted a needs assessment that was mailed to approximately 1000 New Jersey employers (response rate, 10%) and held hearings in 4 New Jersey towns that were attended by 116 individuals. Among the topics/issues examined by the task force were the following: purpose of education; education's role in relation to global competition, the changing workplace, new understanding of learning/education, and technology; New Jersey's current demographics and labor market; skills, competencies, and delivery systems; integrated stakeholders; and accountability measurement. Among the task force's recommendations regarding connecting activities/oversight, stakeholder education, curriculum, and state leadership were the following: work force investment boards must play a major role in forming local educational partnerships and connecting stakeholders promoting school-to-work/work-to-school initiatives; teacher certification requirements and preservice/inservice training must be improved to reflect the new work force readiness agenda; and curricula must reflect customer needs more fully. (Appended are the employer needs assessment results and statements of some of the 36 individuals testifying at the 4 hearings.) (MN)

Progress that has been made in teaching estimation is reviewed. The paper shows that although little has been done in research and development, there is a great deal of interest in developing estimation as a primary skill in school mathematics. It suggests that it is feasible to design instruction sequences in computation, measurement, and problem solving where estimation is developed at an early point so that it can become a tool for learning other skills and concepts. (MP)

Three distinct theories can be set forth for viewing intelligence: a "super-intellect theory" associated with the belief in innate ideas; a sensualistic theory that posits no intellectual role beyond synthesizing of sense-data; and a concept of intelligence as a power to abstract, judge, and reason. Many chronic and current educational problems can be traced to faulty conceptions of intelligence. This is especially true if the implications are examined of the abstractive view for educational purposes, instructional methods, curriculum, the choice of teachers and of students, the nature of knowledge, and other matters. Intellectual development on some scale is the proximate end of education; studies have shown that when material presented is meaningful to students, both learning and retention are more effective. This proximate goal has to a large degree been lost in contemporary society and education. (DS)

Existing Department of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) policy and practice in link courses are reviewed, and some proposals are made on the development of that policy. Issues or questions raised by these policies are juxtaposed with the presentation of link program policy. Chapter 1 considers the background of the link course program and defines the link program as being comprised of part-time courses usually conducted within a TAFE institution to offer secondary students a sample of a wide range of employment areas. Bases of operation for the link program are discussed in chapter 2. These include mutual commitment and mutual planning by secondary schools and TAFE institutions, use of exclusive resources, access to an adult learning environment, curriculum guidelines, cautions related to narrowing students' vocational options in link courses, counseling, and staff development. Chapter 3 focuses on data collection policy. The 1982 record-keeping situation is summarized; an assessment of commitment/cost is outlined, and a centralized transitional education record system is proposed. Chapter 4 addresses the priorities and responsibilities for financing. Appendixes include an interim link course policy and record-keeping forms. (YLB)

In 1995, the National Middle School Association published a position paper defining foundational characteristics of developmentally responsive middle schools and program components that would create the kind of schools young adolescents need and deserve. This book provides a comprehensive, whole vision of schooling for the middle grades and makes more practical and accessible the basic concepts set forth in the 1995 position paper. The chapters are: (1) "The Imperative to Act" (Thomas O. Erb); (2) "Educators Committed to Young Adolescents" (C. Kenneth McEwin and Thomas S. Dickinson); (3) "Developing and Implementing a 'Shared Vision'" (Sue Swaim); (4) "High Expectations for All" (John Arnold); (5) "Advisory: Advocacy for Every Student" (Ross M. Burkhardt); (6) "School, Family, and Community Partnerships" (Joyce L. Epstein); (7) "A Positive School Climate" (Marion Johnson Payne); (8) "Curriculum That Is Challenging, Integrative, and Exploratory" (Chris Stevenson); (9) "Varied Teaching and Learning Approaches" (Barbara L. Brodhagen); (10) "Assessment and Evaluation that Promote Learning" (Gordon F. Vars); (11) "Flexible Organizational Structures" (Deborah Kasak); (12) "Programs and Policies that Foster Health, Wellness, and Safety" (Jean Schultz); and (13) "Comprehensive Guidance and Support Services" (Sherrel Bergmann). All chapters contain references. (KB)

The Reinventing Agricultural Education for the Year 2020 initiative brought together a diverse group of people from across the nation to create a new vision for agriculture education. The group envisioned a system of agricultural education beginning in early childhood and continuing throughout life. The group examined agricultural education's heritage and resolved to take a proactive stance in planning its future. The mission formulated will prepare students for successful careers and a lifetime of informed choices in the global agriculture, food, fiber, and natural resource systems. The following goals were established: (1) an abundance of highly motivated, well-educated teachers in all disciplines, pre-kindergarten through adult, will provide agriculture, food, fiber, and natural resources education; (2) agricultural education leaders will provide instruction in the review, selection, adaptation, and use of appropriate educational technologies and teaching strategies to address the changing education environment; (3) all students will be conversationally literate in agriculture, food, fiber, and natural resources systems; and (4) partnerships and strategic alliances will ensure continuous education about agriculture, food, fiber, and natural resources systems. (The initiative's 36 steering committee and consortium leaders are listed.) (MN)

The paper's first section discusses the connection between personalized reading and punctuation for young primary grade students, with some specific sentences and teaching ideas. Next, the paper describes 10 kinds of written work, done for specific purposes, that may be used with early primary students to emphasize this personalized connection. It outlines 7 basics of punctuation which students need to learn to use, to attain clarity in writing. Finally, the paper discusses 10 criteria from the psychology of learning which should be used in teaching punctuation to students. (SR)

This paper argues that professional selling within the context of a marketing curricula in a business school should be described and practiced in a manner compatible with the marketing concept, which emphasizes satisfaction of consumers' needs. The paper looks at textbook approaches to sales presentations to determine their congruency with the marketing concept and buyer behavior. Analysis of a sample of 11 textbooks on professional selling shows that there are differences with regard to the way need satisfaction is treated across the various textbooks. Two customer need dimensions that are integral to the buying decision process include problem recognition and information needs. A prescription is offered for introducing students to a need-based approach to sales presentations which is compatible with the marketing concept. Students are challenged to view the sales interview as a customer need-centered process. An appendix offers specific findings related to each of the 11 textbooks analyzed. (Contains 30 references.) (JDD)

This paper proposes a learner-centered educational system, focusing on aspects that are intrinsically associated with the modern educational system, such as the curriculum, school community, parents, learners, and educational support personnel. It examines: primary level preparation (literacy, numeracy, and basic knowledge; examination and accountability; and complementary skills that enhance learning and character building, such as listening, study, memory, thinking, time management, multicultural, and social skills); high school level preparation, including preconceptual tests, the teacher and continuity, teacher training and subject specialization, sciences as separate disciplines in high school, integration of disciplines, learning as a sequential development, class size and subject rotation, textbooks, scientific literacy, mind tools, quality and quantity of information, the learning environment, and assessment; tertiary studies, which are designed to make teachers competent in using the medium of instruction and maximizing the knowledge of students in the chosen discipline; the teacher within the ideal curriculum (even in a learner centered classroom, education revolves around the teacher); the supervisor's role in learning; the parent-student relationship; brain development; the importance of good nutrition and a healthy lifestyle; positive attitudes; and the liaison with parents and the community. (Contains 36 references.) (SM)

Offering courses online is a big trend in today's teacher education. This new trend requires students' self development, achievement, and growth. This paper discusses courses that can be offered online and their criteria, and the quality of science courses and the standards they need to meet. (Contains 10 references.) (YDS)

This document discusses the impact of educational technologies in higher education classrooms. It offers suggestions about using technology more effectively in the classroom, and suggests ways to improve teaching through the use of technology. Teachers can develop support systems for their efforts to implement technology, and can change classroom and personal practices that will enhance their effectiveness through the use of technology. Some of what technology promises is feasible, and teachers can use these technologies creatively. Computers can help students and teachers in practical ways; however, attention must be paid to the real needs of teachers and students. This paper encourages teachers to set up their classrooms in ways that will help their teaching and make their classroom lives more efficient and effective. Specific recommendations for doing so are offered. (HB)

This paper discusses how today's children must be prepared to meet the challenge of the information age, stressing the importance of cultivating the whole child and noting the teacher's role in this endeavor. The first section describes basic education in China, focusing on required schooling, the curriculum, textbooks, examinations, and moral education. The second section presents a view of education in the United States, focusing on the state of Massachusetts. The third section compares the two education systems, examining commonalities and disparities. The fourth section focuses on the cultivation of the whole child, which is one of the commonalities between the two countries. It discusses the cultivation of children's personal qualities (moral, psychological, physical, cultural, and professional) and cultivation of children's abilities, including the ability to learn and the ability to adapt in an ever-changing world. The accumulation and application of knowledge accompany the development of children's personal qualities and abilities. When children are trained to become people with high personal qualities and abilities, they are learning how to know and how to do. As their knowledge increases, their personal qualities and abilities also grow. (SM)

This paper develops a framework for understanding a reformed view of assessment, in which assessment plays an integral role in teaching and learning. The proposed model is consistent with current assessment reforms being advanced across many disciplines. Three background sections of the report describe: (1) curriculum and psychological theories that have shaped methods of instruction, conceptions of subject matter, and testing methods in the past; (2) a conceptual framework based on new theories and new relationships among curriculum, learning theory, and assessment; and (3) connections between classroom uses of assessment and external accountability systems. The fourth and fifth sections elaborate the model for classroom assessment based on social-constructivist principles, arguing for the substantive reform of assessment and its use in classrooms to support learning. The final section outlines the kinds of research studies that will be needed to help realize a reformed vision of classroom assessment. (Contains 6 figures and 186 references.) (SLD)

A central and repeated idea in education is the continuous need for change. This paper explores how to assess the ways change can be incorporated into the curriculum, and why stability is also important. The example of team teaching shows the way a concept may become accepted as a "fact" in spite of many weaknesses of the approach. Trends in education do not come and go rapidly, but fads do. Several examples are given of each, and suggestions are made for identifying what should be stable and what should be changed. Caution is recommended in adopting new ideas, but it is emphasized that educators must remain ready to accept changes that bring real benefits. The educator should stand firm until convinced that the reform is really headed in a positive direction. (Contains 12 references.) (SLD)

This paper contrasts three distinct theoretical positions about the importance of empowerment for instruction and achievement. The "teacher professionalism" view maintains that empowerment enhances instruction and learning, the "bureaucratic centralization" approach argues that empowerment impedes effective teaching and learning, and the "loose coupling" perspective suggests that empowerment is largely irrelevant for what happens in classrooms. A limited test of these competing views was conducted using data from the Longitudinal Study of American youth, a national study of math and science teaching and learning in seventh and eighth grades. The study asked teachers whether they had control over classroom curricular content and teaching methods, and whether they participated in administrative decisions and in setting school policies. Results indicated that: (1) in eighth-grade math and seventh-grade science, control over curriculum content had a negative effect on achievement, whereas control over teaching methods was positively related to achievement; (2) none of the empowerment variables made a difference for achievement in seventh-grade math and eighth-grade science; and (3) the impact of empowerment did not seem to depend on teacher experience, administrative leadership, or reported levels of teacher morale and collaboration. The study concludes that ambiguities underlie calls for teacher empowerment as part of educational reform packages. (Contains 17 references.) (JDD)

Recent emphasis on "academics only" in educational curriculum, with content influenced primarily by state-mandated tests, raises questions about the place of career education in the curriculum. It also leads to questions about how to reach nonacademic students, those whose interests and aptitudes lie in more practical knowledge outside the traditional academic curriculum. In addition, concerns can be voiced about individual student needs and over-reliance on multiple-choice testing which does not demonstrate students' use of multiple intelligences and precludes practical and hands-on projects and demonstrations as proof of mastery of learning. The academic emphasis has overshadowed the importance of career education, which is needed by all students. All students will eventually become workers, and most of them will work in more practical rather than academic fields. In addition, all workers need the same types of work attitudes and skills to succeed in life and careers, including dependability, perseverance, trustworthiness, goal orientation, interpersonal skills, a caring attitude, desire for continuous learning, decision-making skills, ethics, and self-actualization. Therefore, all students, K-12, should be involved in career education that will help them to determine and follow a career path during their lifetimes. (KC)

The social studies curriculum should be assessed continuously to bring in the latest research, trends, and recommendations of experts. A survey of teachers, administrators, parents, and other community members may be conducted to determine preferences for the curriculum. An effort should be made to decide what is in the curriculum and what should be included. Some suggestions are made about items that might be included on a questionnaire about the social studies curriculum. A way of determining the scope of the curriculum is to look at the social science disciplines that provide the content for social studies in the schools. Another approach is to look at the 10 themes identified by the National Council for the Social Studies. An additional approach relies on the careful selection of basic textbooks and then expanding this material to emphasize relevance to the students. After the scope of the curriculum has been decided, teachers need to select the objectives for student attainment in terms of knowledge and skills. A variety of evaluation techniques must then be used to find out what students have learned. (Contains 14 references.) (SLD)

CD-ROMs like other curriculum materials, should be assessed for use in teaching and learning situations. Appropriate CD-ROM use should capture student interest, engage learners actively, provide meaningful learning, assist in providing for individual differences, and help students perceive the purpose of learning. CD-ROMs can be used to: (1) provide background information to increase readiness for learning; (2) expand previously learned subject matter and skills; (3) explore a topic in further depth; (4) develop selected concepts and generalizations; (5) develop summaries; (6) obtain information for a report on a lesson or unit of study; (7) foster cooperative efforts; (8) emphasize critical thought; (9) develop creative thinking; and (10) apply information in a new setting. It might be possible to use CD-ROMs in homework or to involve parents, and both parents and teachers could be surveyed about the use of the CD. CD-ROMS can be included in curriculum planning, and their use can be evaluated in the ways other instructional materials are evaluated. (SLD)

One kind of research that may be used to improve the reading curriculum is the survey. Such a survey should be sent to all school district patrons. A specially designated committee should determine the items to be included in the survey, and a qualified editorial committee should write the survey items in their final form. Researchers will then be able to tell what is important to respondents in their school area or the entire school district. Many different approaches are available for teaching reading, and respondents may be asked their preference, just as they are asked their opinions about the time to be allotted for reading instruction. Another question is how to use the survey results. Survey results can give educators a better idea of the community's needs for curriculum development. (SLD)

Teachers need to align learning opportunities with state-mandated objectives. This process should begin with assessing the curriculum, possibly through the use of a 10-point scale by teachers, administrators, support personnel, and parents. To implement the needed learning opportunities, tenets from educational psychology should be used in teaching and learning situations. To determine whether or not a teacher is implementing principles of educational psychology, a Likert scale may be devised to assess the quality of instruction. There are also many procedures available to assess student achievement, ranging from standardized tests to portfolios. (SLD)

The National Association of Teachers in Further and Higher Education (NATFHE), which represents 65,000 academic staff working in further and higher education (FHE) institutions across the United Kingdom, reviewed the current state of post-16 education and training in the United Kingdom and submitted its views on how the system should be improved. NATFHE's submission focused on a new framework encompassing structures at every level of government. Key recommendations for action that were included in the submission are as follows: (1) give coherence to post-16 education and training by developing a whole new framework built on accountability and entitlement to lifelong learning; (2) underpin the framework by the principle of subsiduarity that planning, regulation, accountability, funding, and delivery should occur at the point nearest the learner and nearest delivery; (3) make local communities the cornerstones of the new framework, with local lifelong learning panels and plans; (4) move speedily to pass legislation to embed a statutory framework for entitlement to learning, including individual rights to paid educational leave; (5) conduct an independent review of pay and conditions for FE staff to reverse the current chaos in employment matters; and (6) ensure that the new framework provides mechanisms at every level for the views of staff and their representatives. (MN)

The historical shifts in United States discourses of school architecture as they relate to reforms and inventions of new pedagogical techniques are examined using Michel Foucault's conceptualization of "governmentality" and related scholarship. The purpose is to question assumptions underlying two claims currently being made about school architectural design. The first claim is that the space of the school needs to be more democratic, like a community, and the second is that the space of the school has become more oppressive and controlling. Common school design discourses in the United States incorporated some disciplinary aspects of British monitorial schools. However, in the 1800s, common school discourses governmentalized the "American" school-house with the aim of self-government. Four historical junctures in discourses of school architecture are identified that provide the contingent conditions and reasonings upon which the current debates about reform of school design seem reasonable and make sense. (Contains 65 references.) (GR)

This document contains five essays designed to help teachers and administrators improve tech prep and vocational education programs. The first essay, "Application of Psychology of Learning to Tech Prep Education and Instruction," posits that technical education instructors need to be cognizant of the following: meaningful learning; sequential experiences; student success; purposeful activities; provision for individual differences; knowledge, skills, and attitudinal goals; and quality evaluation techniques. The second essay, "Reading in Tech Prep Education," proposes that high-level reading skills are needed by technical education students and that teachers should assess students' reading skills and help improve them. The third essay, "Curriculum Design in Technical Education," raises three questions: Who should choose objectives of instruction? How should learning opportunities be sequenced? and Which procedures should be used to appraise learner progress? "Improving Vocational Education," the fourth essay, suggests three improvement methods: setting instructional goals for vocational education, encouraging faculty members to attend classes and workshops to upgrade their skills, and sharing ideas at faculty meetings. Specific ideas for teacher training are offered. The final essay, "Analyzing Trends in the Curriculum," discusses relevant trends in today's curriculum, such as cooperative learning, the interdisciplinary curriculum, team teaching, constructivism in teaching, full inclusion, learning styles of pupils, and the block of time. (KC)

Inclusion, a special education reform strategy, should be refocused to accommodate the needs of children with and without disabilities. Inclusion can transform the status of children with disabilities from second to first class citizens and can eliminate the problem of children who have been misdiagnosed. Inclusion is characterized by a shared responsibility for the learning problems of students and minimization of special services outside the classroom. Existing barriers to this expanded focus are certain special education program mandates and elements of school structure related to organization and curriculum. These include Individualized Educational Plans, special education certification mandates, hierarchical school organization, and curriculum design as an element of social control. Changes in general education related to the reconstruction of the school's organizational structure through site-based management, adoption of a collaborative role of teaching, and implementation of a multicultural curriculum focus are suggested as the foundation needed to facilitate the transition from a traditional to an inclusive school. (Contains approximately 100 references.) (JDD)

This document describes a set of indicators that the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) Task Force on Recommended Practices recommends for early intervention and early childhood special education (EI/ECSE) programs for infants and young children with special needs and their families. The indicators are designed to be used by professionals in examining practices currently employed in EI/ECSE programs and in developing programs, and for families to use in selecting a program. The indicators are research-based or value-based, family-centered, compatible with a multicultural perspective, involving members of various disciplines, developmentally and chronologically age appropriate, and normalized. Indicators address the following specific program areas: assessment, family participation, individualized family service plans and individualized education programs, service delivery models, general curriculum and intervention strategies, interventions to promote cognitive skills, interventions to promote communication skills, interventions to promote social skills and emotional development, interventions to promote adaptive behavior skills, interventions to promote motor skills, transition, personnel competence, program evaluation, and early intervention with children who are gifted. For each set of indicators, a narrative discussion outlines a rationale for inclusion and implications for intervention. References accompany each section. (JDD)

The New Zealand Correspondence School is a large, state-funded, national institution teaching at preschool and elementary-secondary school levels. Like the regular education system, it long has been tightly controlled, with a national syllabus, national grading and examinations, and national guidelines for interpretation of the syllabus. The school teaches a wide variety of students with special needs and includes student support systems such as extracurricular activities, camps, seminars, visiting teachers, and school publications. The school maintains strong links between teacher and parent through its expertise in teaching through an intermediary, such as a teacher in the local school, who mediates between the distance education institution and the student. Since it has a wide range of curriculum offerings, its varied teaching methods include audiovisual media, teleconferencing, kits, and project work. The school has evolved a quality management system that provides expert evaluation in course planning, writing, production, and management. The school has become expert at meeting a variety of student needs while serving large groups of students. Some examples of this diversity of needs include students who are enrolled because of distance, itinerancy, medical problems, psychological problems, or because they are overseas. In meeting these students' needs, the school considers provision of courses for nonliterate learners, student support, choice of appropriate course structure, consideration of tutor time management, and choice of an appropriate media mix. The school demonstrates that it is possible for a distance education institution to contribute in a positive and effective way toward meeting national education goals. (KC)

Before developing a curriculum for radiologic technology, one must first attempt to define the term "curriculum." The term is not easy to define precisely, although it does imply the necessity of a master plan that outlines institutional philosophy and goals, course descriptions, description of competency-based evaluation, performance objectives, policy, and outcome assessment processes. Following from the curriculum, a syllabus offers an instructor's personal expression of course content. The process of curriculum development can be very complicated or very loose. Radiology instructors are advised to take a "middle ground" to develop a curriculum and a syllabus that is 5-10 pages long and communicates the essence of a course. The components of the curriculum should include the following: a philosophy statement, a rationale, learning outcome statements (competencies), learning activities, assessment of competency attainment, and specifics of the learning environment. It is important that "curriculum alignment" be considered a focus of curriculum development. This term refers to the agreement between learning outcome statements, learning activities, and the assessment of competency attainment. The radiologic technology curriculum must prepare students to meet minimal criteria for a standardized examination. It must also meet other criteria imposed internally (such as rules of the college) and externally (such as practice at the clinical site). An eight-step methodology can be used for defining curriculum: (1) validate present course content through task analysis; (2) agree on the syllabus format; (3) agree on scope and sequence of the material; (4) write the objectives from simple to most complex; (5) align the objective written with the texts used; (6) carry out the curriculum; (7) align evaluation measures with the curriculum; and (8) review and evaluate the curriculum and improve the syllabus. (KC)

This list of competencies was designed to guide the preparation of teachers of students with learning disabilities. It is based upon a conceptual model known as "the cube" which is divided into 10 broad areas: (1) nature and needs of students with learning disabilities; (2) academic support areas: study skills, consumer skills, and career/vocational skills; (3) curriculum for support areas and modification of school core curriculum; (4) assessment methods, use, and interpretation; (5) classroom assessment, management, and motivation; (6) collaboration and consultation skills; (7) specialized instructional strategies, technologies, and materials; (8) historical and legal aspects; (9) nontraditional practices and procedures; and (10) clinical and field experiences. These 10 areas provide the structure for a list of 209 specific competencies, to be applied within and across the 10 competency areas in different ways, depending upon the specific circumstances of age, severity level, and type of service delivery. (Contains approximately 70 references.) (JDD)

Knowledge, curricula, and goals are implicated in some way in practically every organizational feature of schools. This paper begins with classroom activities as the most microscopic structure of interest to students of schooling processes. It progresses from there to the various forms of structure found in classrooms, to school and community structures, and finally to school system and social system structures. School subjects, evaluation of student performance, relevance of teaching materials and activities, school goals, and standardized testing are among the subjects discussed in these contexts. It is recommended that research strategies seek to discover relationships between specific features of schooling and specific individual and social outcomes. (Author/RLV)