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Urinary tract infections (UTIs) and genital tract infections (GTIs) are both very common infectious diseases. Thus, accuracy and rapidity in recognition and treatment of sexually transmitted urogenital tract infections (ST-UGTIs) is a major concern in global public health systems. The application of reliable, accurate diagnostic tools is the key to definite detection, identification and treatment. This literature review focused on different characteristics of UGTIs in patients and the importance of diagnostic methodologies. The articles published and indexed from 1980 through October 2018 in the databases of PubMed and MEDLINE, as well as the Google Scholar web search engine, were collected and studied. MeSH keywords of “Sexual intercourse”, “Urinary Tract Infections”, “Genital Tract Infections” and “Toll-Like Receptors” were used for searching articles. Then, the proper articles (original and review articles) were subjected to a very rigorous selection process. The clinical symptoms and signs or asymptomatic properties of UTIs and GTIs are similar and often overlap. In many cases, the lack of suitable diagnostic techniques leads to misdiagnosed/undignosed GTIs and overdiagnosed UTIs. The outcome of poor diagnostics is failure of definite identification and treatment. The application of advanced techniques comprising PCR, microarray and next-generation sequencing promises to be more effective, together with the use of the microbial pattern of the individual’s UGT to provide reliable detection, identification and definite treatment. This will be an option in the near future.

Infectious diseases are among the factors that account for a significant proportion of disease-related deaths worldwide. The primary treatment approach to combat microbial infections is the use of antibiotics. However, the widespread use of these drugs over the past two decades has led to the emergence of resistant microbial species, making the control of microbial infections a serious challenge. One of the most important solutions in the field of combating infectious diseases is the regulation of the host's defense system. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a crucial role in the first primary defense against pathogens by identifying harmful endogenous molecules released from dying cells and damaged tissues as well as invading microbial agents. Therefore, they play an important role in communicating and regulating innate and adaptive immunity. Of course, excessive activation of TLRs can lead to disruption of immune homeostasis and increase the risk of inflammatory reactions. Targeting TLR signaling pathways has emerged as a new therapeutic approach for infectious diseases based on host-directed therapy (HDT). In recent years, stem cell-derived exosomes have received significant attention as factors regulating the immune system. The regulation effects of exosomes on the immune system are based on the HDT strategy, which is due to their cargoes. In general, the mechanism of action of stem cell-derived exosomes in HDT is by regulating and modulating immunity, promoting tissue regeneration, and reducing host toxicity. One of their most important cargoes is microRNAs, which have been shown to play a significant role in regulating immunity through TLRs. This review investigates the therapeutic properties of stem cell-derived exosomes in combating infections through the interaction between exosomal microRNAs and Toll-like receptors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: The vaccine available to prevent Hepatitis B virus disease is ineffective in 5% of people due to the use of HBsAg as a weak immunogenic factor. In the present study, PreS2/S fused to C18-27 peptide fragment as an effective antigen and is proposed as a promising vaccine candidate compared with the conventional vaccine prescribed in the vaccination program. Methods: After the synthesis of PreS2/S genes and C18-27 peptide fragment in pET28a, the recombinant protein was confirmed by Western blotting. The efficacy of the PreS2/SC18-27 protein was compared with the conventional vaccine injected into five groups of rats. Finally, the cytokine level of IF-r, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, TNF-a, IgG1, and IgG2a were measured using the ELISA method. Results: This study showed no significant difference between the recombinant vaccine group and PBS control group in the IF-r test, but there was a significant difference between groups testing IL-2 and IL-10. In addition, the group receiving the recombinant vaccine with CPG adjuvant at a dilution of 1/10 in the IgG total test on days 14 and 45 after the first injection showed a significant difference in comparison with other groups. Conclusion: This study showed no statistically significant difference between the recombinant protein vaccine group and the conventional vaccine group. The Th1- mediated immune responses obtained from recombinant proteins with and without CPG performed better than conventional vaccines, possibly due to the functional deficiency of the available vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mammalians harbor and are exposed to various populations of microorganisms, that interact with the immune system and are able to affect the balance of immune responses. Modifications of commensal flora can result in dysregulation of immune responses. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are not only of importance in eliciting the immune responses against pathogens, but also show a significant role in the homeostasis of commensal microbiota and in the response to hazard signals and stress. Here, we review a summary of the TLRs function and the relationship between the immune system and the microbiome in autoimmune diseases' development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: A main contest in chemotherapy is to obtain regulator above the biodistribution of cytotoxic drugs. The utmost promising strategy comprises of drugs coupled with a tumor-targeting bearer that results in wide cytotoxic activity and particular delivery. The B-subunit of Shiga toxin (STxB) is nontoxic and possesses low immunogenicity that exactly binds to the globotriaosylceramide (Gb3/CD77). Gb3/CD77 extremely expresses on a number of human tumors such as pancreatic, colon, and breast cancer and acts as a functional receptor for Shiga toxin (STx). Then, this toxin can be applied to target Gb3-positive human tumors. In this study, we evaluated DT390-STXB chimeric protein as a new anti-tumor candidate via genetically fusing the DT390 fragment of DT538 (Native diphtheria toxin) to STxB. Methods: This study intended to investigate the DT390- STxB fusion protein structure in silico. Considering the Escherichia coli codon usage, the genomic construct was designed. The properties and the structure of the protein were determined by an in silico technique. The mRNA structure and the physicochemical characteristics, construction, and the stability of the designed chimeric protein were analyzed using computational and bioinformatics tools and servers. Hence, the GOR4 and I-TASSER online web servers were used to predict the secondary and tertiary structures of the designed protein. Results: The results demonstrated that codon adaptation index (CAI) of dt390-stxB chimeric gene raised from 0.6 in the wild type to 0.9 in the chimeric optimized gene. The mfold data revealed that the dt390-stxB mRNA was completely stable to be translated effectively in the novel host. The normal activity of the fusion protein determined by considering the secondary and tertiary structure of each construct. Energy calculation data indicated that the thermodynamic ensemble for mRNA structure was -427.40 kJ/mol. The stability index (SI) of DT390-STxB was 36.95, which is quite appropriate to preserve the stability of the construct. Ultimately, the DT390-STxB was classified as a steady fusion protein according to the Ramachandran plot. Conclusion: Our results showed that DT390-STXB was a stable chimeric protein and it can be recruited as a candidate of novel anti-tumor agents for the development of breast cancer treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human skin encompasses a vast variety of microorganisms which construct the structure of skin microflora. Bacteria and yeasts may be the pioneers of the human skin normal flora. The anatomical situations and physicochemical conditions determine the demography of the microbial populations. Among different types of microbial populations, Propionibacterium acnes is the predominant member in the skin areas of back, face and chest. Although this bacterium is part of the normal flora, Propionibacterium acnes contributes to the disease of acne vulgaris. By the progression of scientific disciplines such as Microbiology, Genetics, and Molecular Biology, it is going to be clear that some strains of Propionibacterium acnes are useful and good bacteria and some strains are harmful and bad bacteria. Therefore, in this review, the authors have a look on different characteristics of P.acnes and the related skin disease of acne vulgaris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cancer is known as a considerable disease with high morbidity and mortality within adult's populations. There are different types of cancers with a wide range of distributions and risk factors worldwide. Vaginal cancers are limited but may lead to high morbidity and mortality. Vaginal cancers have several predisposing factors, but HPV is recognized as the most important viral causative agent for vaginal cancers. There are different types of diagnostics for detecting HPV vaginal cancers. A qualified Pap smear is recognized as an invaluable screening program for early detection of HPV vaginal cancers. The incidence of vaginal cancers has significantly decreased in industrialized countries because of qualified performance of Pap smear. The most morbidity and mortality relating to vaginal cancers are reported from developing countries. There are different types of treating procedures including cryotherapy, laser therapy, electrosurgical procedures, radiotherapy and pharmacotherapy. The result of treatments in patients is checked via molecular diagnostic techniques which are known as gold standard approaches. Limitation of risk factors and application of vaccines are confirmed as favor preventing methods. The aim of this article is to review the subtitle of vaginal cancer staging, epidemiology of HPV vaginal cancers, viral characteristics and pathogenesis of HPV vaginal cancers, clinical demonstrations of HPV vaginal cancers diagnosis, treatment and prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Respiratory Tract Infections (RTIs) involve complicated microbial diseases which rank among first four deathful diseases around the globe. Classical and traditional microbiologic and serologic assays are not useful for an accurate and definite diagnosis and treatment. The nucleic acid based and molecular technologies are capable to provide us an effective diagnostic tool for a definite treatment. Among a vast range of molecular diagnostic tools microarray is an invaluable technique with rapid, accurate, sensitive, specific and cost effective properties. For this reason, this review has paid an especial attention to application of microarray for diagnosing RTIs. This article has been prepared via searching different types of articles regarding to the topic throughout the Internet. Google Scholar and PubMed were used for the most. Simultaneously, the experiences of the authors were helpful for riting this review literature. The results from different surveys confirm the application of microarray technology as an accurate, rapid, sensitive, specific, and cost effective technology to have an accurate and definite diagnosis and treatment in association with RTIs. We conclude that microarray technology is an appropriate m ultiparametric diagnostic technique which may be used in large scale clinical applications to decrease the rate of mortality among patients with RTIs worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) are important viral infections which may cause different infections in human hosts. There are two types of HSVs including HSV-1 and HSV-2. In most cases HSV infections are asymptomatic, which is life threatening for pregnant women and their newborns. For this reason we have an eye on HSV, epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of HSV infections in pregnant women. This review has been made by searching several reviews and original articles in different search engines and databases within Internet. The results show that HSV infections are one of the most encountered sexual transmitted diseases. The rate of prevalence and incidence of HSV infections is high in developing countries. Multisexual partnership and unsecured sexual intercourse increase the risk of infections. In conclusion, healthy sexual relationship reduces the possibility of the HSV infections among pregnant women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pharmacotherapy is a routine methodology for treating infectious diseases. But in recent decade, the escalation of antibacterial resistance in pathogenic bacteria has led to significant ineffective and indefinite treatment. The global wave of problems followed by multidrug resistant bacteria includes a considerable increase in morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs among patients with nosocomial infections. Some of pathogenic antibacterial resistant strains are detected as false antibacterial susceptible strains via routine clinical diagnostics. According to myriad diversity among multidrug resistant bacteria, the use of advanced and molecular diagnostic tools is a must for obtaining an accurate and rapid result. In this article we are trying to discuss about the importance of multidrug resistant bacteria from different aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today reliability, rapidity and accuracy in clinical diagnostics are the first choices. Combination of molecular techniques and Bioinformatics have upgraded diagnostic methods and treating managements. Among advanced clinical technologies, microarrays are effective diagnostics in medicine. Medical microbiology is consisted of medical bacteriology, medical mycology, and medical virology; clinical diagnostics of infectious and non-infectious diseases, gene expression profiling, genetic disorders, detection of pathogenic microbial agents and treatment are different pieces of medicine puzzles. The applications of microarrays in medicine are in progress. The most important problem for public use of microarrays is their expensive costs. Covering the costs of microarray technologies will change them into a gold standard method for diagnosing and treatment in public medical centers, laboratories and hospitals around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: Despite the vaccination with the BCG vaccine, tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the major health problems in the world. The aim of this study was to evaluate our newly designed vaccine using IL-22 as an adjuvant in comparison with the common BCG vaccine., Methods: The gene constructs were cloned into the expression vector of pET28a and then into the recombinant vector of PET28a - HSPX, and PPE44 was transformed into Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Finally, the immunogenicity of recombinant proteins with and without BCG and IL-22 in BALB/c mice was investigated., Results: The key cytokines INF-γ and TNF-α were elevated more greatly in BCG immunized group than in PHF immunized group. Immunization with PHF showed a significant increase in IL-4 levels versus the BCG group. Adding IL-22 to the vaccine formulations indicated a tiny increase in IL-4 levels compared to their related vaccine groups.Specific total IgG1 in the experimental groups showed an increase in comparison with control groups, but in the vaccinated groups, no significant differences were observed, and the presence of IL-22 in the vaccine formulations indicated a slight decrease compared with the related mere vaccine groups. Results of specific total IgG2a in the experimental groups revealed that only in the PHF group formulated with IL-22 a significant increase occurs compared with all other experimental groups., Conclusion: It seems that BCG, as the only licensed vaccine for TB infection, could be more potent than a recombinant vaccine in the induction of cellular and humoral immune responses., Competing Interests: The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Introduction: Hepatitis B and C viruses are one of the leading causes of health problems in the world and early diagnosis and treatment of them are very important. Thereby, this study aimed to evaluate the validity and reliability of usable diagnostic tests for the detection of hepatitis B and C viruses in the clinical setting and to compare them with each other., Materials and Methods: In this review article, we have searched major online databases, including PubMed and EMBASE. 42 retrieved articles were published between January 2000 and January 2020, which are summarized in this review., Results: Immunoassay approaches are general techniques for the identification of pathogenic agents, among which ELISA is the gold standard for the detection of HBsAg. While serological techniques are not conclusive, molecular assays are really important because of the high sensitivity to detect chronic hepatitis B without HBeAg, in which viral loads are very low. Biosensors have more elevated selectivity and sensitivity and faster responses compared to other methods., Conclusion: This study suggests that all of the molecular, serological, and biotechnological assays have advantages and disadvantages for diagnosing hepatitis B and C viruses which are dependent on the condition, so we should choose one of them in regards to the time, cost, and laboratory equipment along with the clinical symptoms., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)