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Copyright of Journal of African Languages & Linguistics is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper aims to offer a historical overview, legal framework and analysis of the reserve force, conscription or compulsory military service, and militia systems in Ethiopia from the period of Emperor Haile Selassie to the present. Methodologically, it employs an empirical examination of literature and legal documents on the reserve force, conscription and the militia. There is an inadequacy of literature on the three major citizen soldier defence institutions in Ethiopia, and this paper is a partial attempt to fill the knowledge gap. The paper discusses the legal framework of the Emperor’s effort to create a reserve force named Territorial Amy, which more or less met its objective, even though the effort to start national military service failed. The military government’s vicious mobilisation of militia and heavy recruitment of the youth for national military service resulted from the extended civil war that ended with the liberation of Eritrea and the toppling of the government. Currently, the government is planning to start national military service; on the other hand, a nominal reserve force exists, and the mostly rural institution of the militia plays an important citizen soldier role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refugees rarely flee in isolation. Instead, their everyday lives and mobilities are fundamentally shaped by the broader set of social relations in which they are embedded, particularly by their families. Drawing on interviews with sixty displaced people living in Germany and in-depth case studies of the trajectories of refugees from Eritrea and Syria, we reconstruct the role that families and other social relations transgressing national borders have played in their mobility to Germany and how their lives have been rescaled since initial displacement. Based on central ideas from figurational sociology, which we link with scholarship on forced migration, transnationalism and family relations, our paper identifies four specific family figurations in displacement that represent typical mobility patterns and constellations of 'doing family' in transnational spaces: the lone yet connected traveller; the reunited nuclear family; the transnationally separated family; and the transnationally extended family. We argue that family figurations in displacement are, on the one hand, decisively shaped by specific family relations and distinct displacement trajectories with various phases of family separation and reunion. On the other hand, they are fundamentally configured by migration regimes and asylum systems that substantially constrain the opportunities to live dignified local or transnational family lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During European colonial times in Africa and elsewhere, missionary education was an integral part of the colonial instruments for political domination, economic exploitation, and cultural assimilation. This paper aims to investigate the process of making colonial subjects through missionary education that was mainly provided by Catholic and Evangelical mission schools during the Italian colonial period in Eritrea. The paper argues that the Catholic and Evangelical mission schools distinctively worked to achieve their separate objectives that can be explained as employment versus salvation, teaching versus preaching, flag versus Bible, and hands versus soul, respectively. While the Catholic mission school focused on training the hand in order to supply labour, the Evangelical mission school stressed harvesting the soul to cultivate a docile labour force. Despite their differences, the works of the Catholic and Evangelical mission schools placed much emphasis on and exerted much effort to producing a class of colonial subjects that could serve as brokers of power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the proposed strict new constraints of public authorities, decarbonization has become a key trend in recent years. Although several countries have started the process of decarbonization through the introduction of electric vehicles in their public services, for many countries, especially developing countries, transportation is still a hard sector to decarbonize. The presence of obsolete and polluting vehicles discourages citizens from using public transport and thus incentivizes the use of private vehicles, which create traffic congestion and increase emissions. Based on these considerations, this paper aimed to implement a simulation for a public service in Eritrea, evaluating whether it is possible to take a long trip using an electric minibus. A case study is implemented highlighting the barriers of electrifying transportation in this area, producing results on fuel consumption and service reliability. In the case study, four scenarios are presented to estimate the service. The scenarios evaluate the possibility to perform from three to five recharges. Fewer charges mean longer charging time, leading to a 2 h charging phase in Scenario 1, while recharging more than twice along the route will lead to shorter 30 min charges, as in Scenario 3. The case study also highlights the relevance of the slope in electric vehicle performance, as reported for the case of Asmara–Massawa travel ( E c o n s = 6.688 kWh). Finally, an environmentally sustainable solution, such as a 92 kWh/day photovoltaic plant, is proposed to power the service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the purpose of this study, A statistical test of Biblical books was conducted using the recently discovered probability models for text homogeneity and text change point detection. Accordingly, translations of Biblical books of Tigrigna and Amharic (major languages spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia) and English were studied. A Zipf-Mandelbrot distribution with a parameter range of 0.55 to 0.88 was obtained in these three Bibles. According to the statistical analysis of the texts' homogeneity, the translation of Bible in each of these three languages was a heterogeneous concatenation of different books or genres. Furthermore, an in-depth examination of the text segmentation of prat of a single genre—the English Bible letters revealed that the Pauline letters are heterogeneous concatenations of two homogeneous segments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines enforcement practices and intra-ethnic interactions and encounters across the international border between Eritrea and Ethiopia from 2000 to 2018, with a particular focus on the Central Sector. The specific objective is to investigate how the Tigrinya ethnic group, who were arbitrarily separated by the colonial border between Eritrea and Ethiopia, make use of intra-ethnic relationships to combat the new border enforcement practices imposed by Eritrea and Ethiopia to advance their everyday reciprocal interests. This micro perspective is applied to two border towns, Serha and Tserona, which are located at Eritrea's border with Ethiopia. By analysing the everyday lived experiences of the people who live along the border, this article argues that the underground cross-border support and interactions among kin groups play a significant role in their everyday lives as they combat the States' everyday border enforcement practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the start of the millennium, asylum seekers (ASs) from Eritrea and South Sudan began arriving in Israel as a consequence of armed conflicts in their countries. In their first months of stay, their civil status was not regulated. Later on, the state regulated it based on the Prevention of Infiltration Law (1954), originally designed to prevent Palestinian-Arab refugees from returning to the country. The African ASs represent less than one-third of the undocumented immigrants in Israel but their skin color highlights their alienness thus they are prone to both official and unofficial criminalization. This paper deals with state violence directed at the African ASs through practices of criminalization and othering as applied by Israeli politics and the justice system towards undocumented African migrants in Israel as dangerous and undesirable others. The discussion presents implications for an agentic human rights action-based model for further inquiry and practice that resists othering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the litigation strategies adopted by Eritrea and Ethiopia before the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission convened at The Permanent Commission of Arbitration at The Hague between 2001 and 2009. I pursue insights from the work of Laura Nader concerning how, through binding arbitration, the international community imposes its power on disputing parties as opposed to allowing their competing legal claims to be fairly decided. The claims examined by this paper concern who started the border war and that Ethiopia denationalized 'Eritrean' nationals and unlawfully deprived them of their property. I conclude that the PCA's decisions on Eritrea and Ethiopia were flawed and that its deliberations need to be viewed in a much wider political context; furthermore its decisions contributed to further political instability in the Horn of Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Once a unified state, Ethiopia and Eritrea experienced a catastrophic war. Although deep-rooted economic and political conditions were at work in the background, issues of an improperly demarcated border triggered the 1998–2000 war. During the outbreak both Ethiopia and Eritrea were already emerging from another war. As a result, tens of thousands died, and millions were displaced. The intervention of the international community averted the war. The Organization of African Unity arbitrated the matter, supported by the United Nations, the European Union and the United States. However, disagreement over the implementation of the technical arrangements of the arbitration obstructed the full-scale implementation of the arbitration – leading to a period of 'no peace, no war'. Both maintained an adamant position, and resuming relations appears impossible unless a change of government takes place. Fortunately, a wave of civil resistance rocked Ethiopia from 2015 to 2018, resulting in national reform in mid-February 2018. This opened the initiative for the resumption of relations. This paper discusses the conditions contributing to the renewal of the Ethiopian–Eritrean ties and the steps taken by both to revise their foreign policy directions that had them in a deadlock for decades. It also identifies risk factors bottlenecking the full-scale normalisation of the rapprochement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that access to quality education and skills development programs for refugees, returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) is not only one of the fundamental human rights that states and non-state actors have obligations to fulfill; it is also an integral part of sustainable development efforts which will have significant contributions to socio-economic transformation in host countries, countries of origin and countries of destinations in the event that refugees become migrant, which is sometimes the case. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) region, consisting of eight member states, namely, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, host more than 13 million forcibly displaced people. This results from protracted and devastating conflicts; drought and famine and other natural or man-made calamities. Within the IGAD region, Somalia, South Sudan and Sudan produce 80 to 90% of displacement due to protracted civil wars. However, almost all the member states have refugees, IDPs or migrants sheltered in their territories. Access to higher education among refugees, returnees and IDPs is very low at only 3% compared to 36% globally. The figure for Africa is still dismal, at less than 1%; and the same holds true for the IGAD region. In an effort to address this major challenge facing these population categories, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) convened a high level regional (Ministerial Conference) on refugee education held in Djibouti, 12-14 December 2017. That Conference adopted what is now called the Djibouti declaration and Plan of Action for refugee education in the IGAD region. The major purpose of this paper was is to outline the refugee situations in general and the state of higher education in the region in particular.

Eritreans have experienced protracted conflict and displacement over the last half a century. Aside from marginalisation, immobilisation, highly constrained livelihood options and legal limbo, this has also created a complex and dynamic web of transnational networks of Eritrean refugees and diasporas around the world. In this paper, we argue that protractedly displaced people are not only entangled with forced immobility but also encounter opportunities to create new migration pathways. This ethnographic study shows how protractedly displaced people build up socio-spatial connections and sequential small-scale mobility, circumventing the multiple constraints the governance regimes have placed upon them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing availability of previously declassified material on the Cold War has allowed scholars to revisit old questions with new, more decisive, evidence. In this paper, we draw on this archival material to address the unresolved question of what Cuba's involvement against the Eritrean Liberation struggle consisted of in the late 1970s, and importantly why they engaged in this way, given a historical commitment to the Eritrean Liberation movement's goals. While a seemingly minor point in a protracted 30-year struggle for Eritrean independence, we argue that clarifying this matters for several reasons, not least that Cuban support for the Ethiopian offensive against the Eritreans was seemingly pivotal for temporarily reversing the fighters' major gains in the late 1970s, meaning fifteen more years of fighting until Eritrea's de facto independence was secured. Drawing upon excerpts from the first author's original book manuscript on this topic, we also suggest that the effects of Havana's and other government's denial of Cuba's involvement in suppressing the Eritrean struggle contributed to the sense of betrayal and distrust that still haunts Eritrean politics and its leadership, as well as those Eritrean liberation fighters who experienced their staunch ally turn into an ideological and material adversary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"War made the state, and the state made war" is Charles Tilly's famous dictum that has become highly influential both in comparative macrosociology and in International Relations. An extensive literature suggests that this mechanism has played a pivotal role in European processes of state formation. However, its applicability to warfare in the Global South is controversial. While some argue that the relationship remains the same, others are skeptical of the effects of the bellicist mechanism. Against the background of the debate as to whether war makes or un-makes states in the Global South, this paper examines the conditions under which wars have formative effects and result in state-making. Revisiting the war-making/state-making paradigm, I argue that the mode of economic reproduction of "wielders of coercion" determines whether war has formative effects. Wielders of coercion, or more specifically, non-state armed movements may draw on (1) rents, (2) indirect extraction, or (3) direct extraction to sustain their economic base and organize coercion. However, they institutionalize and develop into a state-like organization only when they rely on direct extraction. To support these claims, I conduct a plausibility probe drawing on evidence from highly successful armed insurgencies: Eritrea's EPLF, Somaliland's SNM, and Namibia's SWAPO. In sum, the bellicist relationship remains valid for the Global South, even if the conditions under which war makes states are rare. A more nuanced reading of the bellicist theory improves our understanding of the dynamics of state formation and decay in the post-colonial world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teff (Eragrostis tef) is known as a health functional food and has been gaining its popularity across the world. Teff is a staple crop and has been cultivated for thousands of years in Ethiopia and Eritrea, currently producing 90% of the world's teff. As the number of consumers are increasing, who look for an alternative to wheat flour especially for people with celiac disease, more countries are increasing teff production. People at all ages can benefit from consuming teff as it contains dietary fiber, iron, potassium, and etc. It is also helpful for people with obesity and diabetes due to its low glycemic index. Therefore, modern society pursues health-oriented thinking, and teff is expected to be in the spotlight as a good food for all ages to consume. However, information on the nutritional benefits of teff and research on food development using teff are insufficient. This review paper is a literature review, and the method is a narrative review. In addition, it is suggested that the frequency of Teff intake can be increased by presenting the introduction of foods with high nutritional value using Teff by providing basic data on nutrition and efficacy through a close investigation of Teff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

War crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide were committed in the war in Tigray. This article focuses on the use of sexual violence as an instrument of war. It narrates the scale, nature, and intentions of the sexual violence perpetrated on Tigrayan women, girls, men and boys. It showcases the extreme cruelty, dehumanization and intent to sterilize and inflict maximum damage from stories of victims and witnesses. It compares them with the rape crimes committed in other cases and concludes the nature of the crime was genocidal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines colonial Italian menus used in interwar Ethiopia and Eritrea to understand how provide companies supported Fascism's imperial projects. Feasts celebrated battlefield victories, steamship journeys, and settlement soirees. Menus produced by shipping companies (Rex, Lloyd Triestino) and banks (Banca di Roma) for use by Italian colonists on Ethiopian settlements speaks to the economics of Fascism, demonstrating how private companies, used food to uphold and extend Fascist narratives of racial superiority. Herein lies a core contention of this article: the engine of fascist power lay in its financial supporters – that is, in industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Afar is undergoing the final stages of continental rifting and hosts the triple junction between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Main Ethiopian rifts. To better understand the nature of the crust and continental breakup in the region, we calculate teleseismic receiver functions across northeastern Afar and the Danakil microplate, using new data from a regional deployment in Eritrea. We estimate the Moho depth and bulk crustal VP/VS ratio using the H‐κ stacking method. The heterogeneity of our crustal thickness estimates (∼19–35 km) indicates that the Danakil microplate has undergone stretching and crustal thinning. By investigating the relationship between crustal thickness and topographic elevation, we estimate the regional crustal bulk density as ρc ≈ 2,850 ± 20 kg m−3, which is higher than expected, given the crustal thickness of the region. We show that topography is 1.5 ± 0.4 km higher than would be expected due to crustal isostasy alone. We propose that this topography is supported by the same hot mantle upwelling suggested to be responsible for the onset of rifting in East Africa. Uplift is generated due to the presence of a hot thermal anomaly beneath the plate and by thinning of the lithospheric mantle. Our results are consistent with a number of independent constraints on the thermal structure of the asthenospheric and lithospheric mantle. Evidence of melt within the crust is provided by anomalously high VP/VS ratios of >1.9, demonstrating that magma‐assisted extension continues to be important in the final stages of continental breakup. Plain Language Summary: Afar is an area of northern Ethiopia that extends into Eritrea. It hosts three tectonic plate boundaries that are pulling apart from one another (rifting) as continental breakup is occurring. These rifting processes have led to a complicated tectonic history; isolating a small microcontinent (the Danakil) and giving rise to volcanism across the region. To better understand the nature of the crust, we study seismic data to estimate the crustal thickness and the ratio of seismic wave speeds. Our results indicate that the crust shows substantial variation in thickness, meaning that the Danakil microplate has undergone crustal thinning. We use our results to determine that dynamic mantle processes are responsible for supporting the elevation of the region. We also show that partially molten rock (magma) is likely to be present in the crust beneath northeastern Afar and the Danakil microplate, which is evidence that magma assists with continental breakup. Key Points: Receiver functions produce the first estimates of Eritrean bulk crustal propertiesThe crust of Afar and the Danakil microplate is denser than global average and highly heterogeneousEvidence found for melt within crust and for support from hotter mantle propping up topography beneath Afar and the Danakil microplate [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the past few decades, several studies on the determinants and risk factors of severe maternal outcome (SMO) have been conducted in various developing countries. Even though the rate of maternal mortality in Eritrea is among the highest in the world, little is known regarding the determinants of SMO in the country. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify determinants of SMO among women admitted to Keren Provincial Referral Hospital. Methods: A facility based unmatched case-control study was conducted in Keren Hospital. Women who encountered SMO event from January 2018 to December 2020 were identified retrospectively from medical records using the sub-Saharan Africa maternal near miss (MNM) data abstraction tool. For each case of SMO, two women with obstetric complication who failed to meet the sub-Saharan MNM criteria were included as controls. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were employed using SPSS version-22 to identify factors associated with SMO. Results: In this study, 701 cases of SMO and 1,402 controls were included. The following factors were independently associated with SMO: not attending ANC follow up (AOR: 4.53; CI: 3.15–6.53), caesarean section in the current pregnancy (AOR: 3.75; CI: 2.69–5.24), referral from lower level facilities (AOR: 11.8; CI: 9.1–15.32), residing more than 30 kilometers away from the hospital (AOR: 2.97; CI: 2.29–3.85), history of anemia (AOR: 2.36; CI: 1.83–3.03), and previous caesarean section (AOR: 3.49; CI: 2.17–5.62). Conclusion: In this study, lack of ANC follow up, caesarean section in the current pregnancy, referral from lower facilities, distance from nearest health facility, history of anaemia and previous caesarean section were associated with SMO. Thus, improved transportation facilities, robust referral protocol and equitable distribution of emergency facilities can play vital role in reducing SMO in the hospital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When refugees’ access to economic, political, and social rights cannot be guaranteed in one locale, individuals make pragmatic choices about what relationships to sustain with authorities elsewhere, even with those that caused their flight in the first place. This process of return is rarely akin to conventional repatriation, understood as the full re-establishment of the rights and responsibilities associated with citizenship (Bradley, 2013). In this paper, the authors instead propose the concept of retreat to capture the process initiated by those who are seeking to escape protracted displacement through a partial return to their country of origin, and through which individuals hope that they can assemble multiple sources of rights across several locations. Drawing from recent ethnographic research in Eritrea, the authors analyze the stories of individuals, mostly refugees, who have decided to retreat despite the lack of political change. Neither exclusively citizens nor refugees in countries of origin or asylum, research participants’ “dually absent” socio-legal position is analyzed in this article. The authors show that this rests on stratified forms of citizenship and the relational nature of different rights and statuses and argue that this position should be recognized as an additional dynamic in the literature on flight, return, and transnational citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the opportunities, dilemmas, and challenges involved in the cross-cultural adaptation (CCA) of psychological scales for use with refugee populations. It draws on insights derived from an attempt to adapt the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) to the particular culture and context of Eritrean refugees residing in Israel. Multiple techniques including expert translations, a focus-group discussion, a survey, and piloting, were employed to attain a cross-cultural and conceptually equivalent measure. During the CCA process, the research team encountered issues pertaining to conceptual non-equivalence, the structure of the measure's responses and scoring system, and acceptability. These issues required the team to move beyond semantic translation by adapting certain items. This study demonstrates the compromises which need to be made in the adaptation process and indicates the potential bias which each of these compromises introduces. Despite its limitations, CCA does appear to significantly improve detection of mental health symptoms in refugee populations. Overall, the results of the present study provide support for the notion that the sensitive and appropriate assessment of individuals from refugee backgrounds requires adopting a rigorous, systematic, and contextual approach to instrument adaptation, with an emphasis on the integration of idioms of distress as well as the adaptation of Likert-type scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

State-building process in Africa appears in different conditions to those experienced on other continents. It is primarily characterized by the presence of fixed borders. The article repurposes evolutionary and identitarian theories on the development of political communities for the African realities. It highlights the necessity to develop policies creating territorial division between the population of the state and the external environment and utilizing armed forces for the protection of the state against such an environment for the state-building process to succeed. In cases of Eritrea, Senegal, and Burkina Faso, three hypotheses are being tested with an outcome that state-building process connected to the creation of Nomos does not have to be violent but requires a connection of the armed forces to the society. Once the division between the Nomos and the hostis develops inside of the state, such entities are not able to develop power projection capabilities inside their borders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yonas Mesfun Asfaha is an associate professor at Asmara College of Education in Eritrea, and recently he accepted the role of acting dean of the College of Education. He is a well-known literacy scholar specializing in African literacies as well as multilingual language policy as it relates to education. Lydiah Kiramba is an associate professor at the University of Nebraska and is originally from Kenya. Her areas of expertise include multilingual and ESL education, language and literacy teaching and assessment, and bi/multiliteracy development. Lydiah Kiramba talked with Yonas Asfaha via Zoom during the spring/summer months of 2023 about epistemologies and ontologies that have significantly influenced his work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction of education and digital technology today is one of the key characteristics of development. Many industrialized nations place a high value on digital learning practices and have created several national strategic plans to encourage and support the use of digital practices in education. In its reform and development of education, Eritrea has also made the strategic decision to assist educational modernization using a clear digital policy. Eritrea has made significant advancements in the creation of technology infrastructure, the use of digital resources, innovative teaching methods, and technology-supported educational management to date. However, there are still issues with execution brought on by teachers' preparation, public spending, and human resources. The study collected useful information from n = 141 active student-teachers participating in post-graduate diploma (PGD) practice at Asmara College of Education utilizing both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Results have been reported using special and original quotes together with both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study's conclusions show that teachers' enthusiasm for using ICT in the classroom will have a favorable effect on their ability to teach, assisting them in becoming aware of the modernized world and adjusting to its expectations. The knowledge of the teachers has a big impact on digital activities. Additionally, the research has revealed that Eritrean school instructors have little knowledge of using ICT in teaching and learning to improve student performance. The perception of teachers' preparation for digital competency is positive, even though a noteworthy problem is being highlighted that prevents teaching and learning from succeeding. They have a very high and favorable opinion of how the use of technology has affected their ability to teach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the potential for mineral prospectivity mapping (MPM) within the Kerkesha area, southwestern Eritrea, using remote sensing and geochemical data analysis. The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) remote sensing data were used for mapping zones of hydrothermal alteration, while assessment of geologic structures was based on automated extraction of lineaments from a digital elevation model (DEM). Integration of these alteration and structural datasets with surface geochemical data was carried out to identify pathfinder elements associated with Au–Cu–Zn mineralization as well as to evaluate and delineate anomalous regions in this relatively underexplored region of the Arabia Nubia Shield (ANS). Specifically, the modeling approach for the extraction and interpretation of mineralization-related spectral footprints was the selective principal component analysis (SPCA), and the lineament features extracted from DEM derivatives were integrated with the soil geochemical data and modeled by principal component analysis (PCA). The results revealed a NE–SW trend of lineaments, delineated zones of hydrothermal alteration indicating the presence of multi-deposit type mineralization, and identified pathfinder elements. In addition, Au–Cu–Zn anomalous zones were extracted by one-class support vector machine (OCSVM) and the performance of such classification was validated by the area under the curve (AUC) and the Youden index computed from receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and the Kruskal–Wallis test. The results showed significance in differences between the anomalous and non-anomalous zones and existence of a relationship between known mineral deposits and predicted anomalies. The proposed MPM shows promising results for robust automated delineation and understanding of mineralization processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores situations for improving the collaborative commitments of a group of learner-teachers undertaking action research projects about their own learning processes in a teacher education setting. The encounters are recounted based on the 16-week experience of educators (the first two authors) while facilitating, guiding, and supporting an action research course offered at a college of education for senior undergraduate learner-teachers in Eritrea in the academic year 2018–2019. We have employed the theory of practice architectures to identify conditions that constituted our facilitation practices. We analysed transcriptions of our practice-based series of discussions and course artefacts, including diary entries, learner-teachers' action research reports, and interactions on the WhatsApp group page created for the course. Problematizing processes of learning, proactive guidance approaches, and modelling collaborative initiatives were among the facilitation practices that we argue have significantly influenced the collaborative commitments of the learners in their action research projects. We also discuss the implications of our facilitation practices that sought to model the qualitatively loaded terms that constitute the course, i.e. collaboration, action, and research. Some implications for teacher education practices are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Çankırı Karatekin University Journal of the Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences is the property of Cankiri Karatekin University, Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: A 6-month course of isoniazid, 300 mg daily, was programmatically introduced in Eritrea in 2014 as tuberculosis preventive therapy in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV). The rollout of isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) in PLHIV was successful in the first 2–3 years. After 2016, rumours based on rare but real incidents of liver injuries following use of IPT spread widely across the country and created concerns amongst healthcare professionals and consumers, that ultimately caused dramatic decline in the rollout of the intervention. Decision makers have been demanding better evidence as previously conducted local studies had inherent methodological limitations. This real-world observational study was conducted to evaluate the risk of liver injury associated with IPT among PLHIV attending Halibet national referral hospital, Asmara, Eritrea. Methods: A prospective cohort study, that consecutively enrolled PLHIV attending Halibet hospital, was conducted between 1 March and 30 October 2021. Those exposed to anti-retroviral therapy (ART) plus IPT were considered as exposed and those taking only ART were considered as unexposed. Both groups were prospectively followed up for 4–5 months with monthly liver function tests (LFTs). A Cox proportional hazard model was used to explore whether there was increased risk of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) associated with IPT. Probability of survival without DILI was also estimated using Kaplan–Meier curves. Results: A total of 552 patients, 284 exposed and 268 unexposed, completed the study, with a mean follow-up time of 3.97 (SD 0.675) months for the exposed and 4.06 (SD 0.675) months for the unexposed. Twelve patients developed drug-induced liver injury (DILI), with a median time-to-onset of 35 days (interquartile range: 26.8, 60 days). All cases were from the exposed group and all except two cases were asymptomatic. The incidence rate of DILI in the exposed group was 10.6 cases per 1000 person–months and zero for the unexposed group (p = 0.002). Conclusion: DILI in PLHIV taking IPT was common; therefore, liver function should be closely monitored to safely administer the product. Despite high levels of deranged liver enzymes, the majority had no symptoms of DILI, emphasising the importance of close laboratory monitoring, especially during the first 3 months of treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services (MAES) is key to inform sustainable policy and decision-making at national and sub-national levels. Responding to the paucity of research in sub-Saharan Africa, we conduct a pilot study for Eritrea that aims to map and assess the temporal dynamics of key ecosystems and their services. We reviewed policy and legal documents, analyzed land cover changes and estimated the potential for ecosystem services supply through an expert-based matrix approach. Our results showed that from 2015 to 2019, the potential supply of the ecosystem services analyzed (e.g., crop provisioning, water supply and recreation) increased, with the exception of wood supply. Overall, our study presents policy-relevant insights as to where to conserve, develop, or restore ecosystem services supply in Eritrea. Our approach is transferable to similar data scarce contexts and can thereby support policies toward more sustainable land development for people and nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the crustal structure and the storage and movement of fluids beneath a volcano is necessary for characterizing volcanic hazard, geothermal prospects and potential mineral resources. This study uses local earthquake traveltime tomography to image the seismic velocity structure beneath Nabro, an off‐rift volcano located within the central part of the Danakil microplate near the Ethiopia‐Eritrea border. Nabro underwent its first historically documented eruption in June 2011, thereby providing an opportunity to analyze its post‐eruptive state by mapping subsurface fluid distributions. We use a catalog of earthquakes detected on a temporary seismic array using machine learning methods to simultaneously relocate the seismicity and invert for the three‐dimensional P‐ and S‐wave velocity structures (VP, VS) and the ratio between them (VP/VS). Overall, our model shows higher than average P‐ and S‐wave velocities, suggesting the presence of high‐strength, solidified intrusive magmatic rocks in the crust. We identify an aseismic region of low VP, low VS, and high VP/VS ratio at depths of 6–10 km b.s.l., interpreted as the primary melt storage region that fed the 2011 eruption. Above this is a zone of high VS, low VP, and low VP/VS ratio, representing an intrusive complex of fractured rocks partially saturated with over‐pressurized gases. Our observations identify the persistence of magma in the subsurface following the eruption, and track the degassing of this melt through the crust to the surface. The presence of volatiles and high temperatures within the shallow crust indicate that Nabro is a viable candidate for geothermal exploration. Plain Language Summary: Understanding the structure of the crust and the distribution and movement of fluids beneath a volcano allows for the assessment of volcanic hazard, geothermal potential and possible mineral extraction. To identify different regions of the crust and differentiate between fluids, we use the fact that the speed of seismic waves depends on the material they are traveling through. For example, seismic waves will travel through magma (molten, or liquid, rock) at lower speeds than in the surrounding rock. The focus of this study is Nabro volcano in Eritrea, which erupted in 2011. We use earthquakes that have been automatically detected following the eruption to image the structure of the crust in the form of 3D variations in seismic wave speeds. This identifies a volume of magma stored at depths of 6–10 km below sea level, which fed the eruption. Above this, we observe a region of rocks that are likely remnants of earlier eruptions at Nabro, with fractures containing gases at high pressure. The source of this high pressure is the release of gas from the magma storage zone. The presence of hot fluids means Nabro could be used as a source of geothermal power in the future. Key Points: 3D seismic modeling reveals the structure of the magmatic and hydrothermal systems beneath Nabro volcano in EritreaThe primary melt storage region feeding the 2011 eruption is located at depths of 6–10 km below sea levelDegassing from the magma storage zone causes overpressure in partially saturated, fractured intrusive complex above [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focusses on transformations in the military labour regimes brought about by the recruitment of African soldiers during the early years of the Italian colony of Eritrea, by analysing colonial reports, correspondence and official regulations. On the one hand, it demonstrates that the lack of complete political control forced the Italians to adapt to the local multiple currency system for the building and maintenance of the indigenous corps. On the other hand, it shows that money was employed in colonial discourse and practice as a tool to facilitate the regularisation of indigenous soldiers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the utilization of the PalTalk chat application by the Eritrean diaspora as a platform for solidarity building and long-distance activism against totalitarianism in their home country between 2000 and 2016. The objective of this research is to analyze the role of Eritrean PalTalk as a transnational mobilization network, with a particular focus on "Smer" room, one of the most popular Eritrean PalTalk groups (Smer is "unite" in Tigrinya). The study delves into the evolution, struggles, and milestones of "Smer" room and illustrates how Eritrean migrants, living under a regime where private press is banned and criticism of the government is not tolerated, utilized chat rooms as safe spaces for solidarity building and public opinion construction. Additionally, the research considers how PalTalk may have enabled diaspora Eritreans to overcome fears of punishment from the repressive state, and how chat room patrons planned and mobilized diasporic mass demonstrations in Europe demanding the stepping down of their state leader. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study aimed at examining the question modification strategies Eritrean elementary and middle school teachers used to differentiate their instruction and meet the diversity in the classroom as well as the functions these strategies served in classroom interactions. The research data consisted of videotaped recordings (N = 11 videotaped lessons) of classroom interactions in eight mathematics and science classrooms, which were analysed through interaction analysis. The findings showed that Eritrean teachers utilised the following five question modification strategies either independently or in combination: repetition; rephrasing; clarification; decomposition; and code-switching. Although repetition was the most commonly used strategy, it was not found to help teachers to differentiate their instruction. Likewise, the utilisation of rephrasing was dependent on how effectively teachers captured students' misunderstandings and modified their questions accordingly. Instead, clarification, decomposition, and code-switching were found to be the most highly developed question modification strategies from the viewpoint of differentiation. It was concluded that the question modification strategies were dominant and workable elements of classroom interactions in teacher-led and poorly-resourced large classrooms, such as those in Eritrea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Settlement pattern analysis offers a range of insights about social, economic, and political relationships of Aksumite civilization. Two common approaches involve analyzing site size distributions and the spatial distribution of sites to evaluate possible clustering. We review the history of archaeological survey and settlement pattern analyses for Pre-Aksumite, Aksumite, and Post-Aksumite periods. We focus on data from two areas of northern Ethiopia collected by the Eastern Tigray Archaeological Project and the Southern Red Sea Archaeological Histories Project. We conduct Ripley's-K multi-distance spatial cluster analysis to evaluate spatial clustering/dispersion, and Gaussian mixture model/Bayesian information criterion analysis to evaluate possible site size hierarchies. Results show similar patterns in the two areas, including site clustering predominantly during the Pre-Aksumite period, an increase in the number of sites and decrease in average site size from the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite periods, and no definitive evidence that site size hierarchies are an indicator of political changes over time. Overall, results indicate locally aggregated political organization during the Pre-Aksumite period, locally decentralized organization, infilling, and population growth during the Aksumite period, and a subsequent decline in population and political centralization during the Post-Aksumite period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Migration to Norway has increased rapidly in recent decades. Migrants have a lower prevalence of substance use, but may have an elevated risk of developing mental health issues and substance use problems due to various migration and post-migration factors. Few studies have sought to understand substance use problems among migrants in Norway. This study aimed to explore how people of East African background experience help-seeking for substance use problems in the Norwegian healthcare system. Methods: Using an explorative approach, in-depth individual interviews were conducted with six adult participants from Somalia, Eritrea and Sudan who had been in contact with the Norwegian healthcare system. The goal of the interviews was to facilitate in-depth and nuanced descriptions of the participants' lived experience of help-seeking for substance use problems. The data were analysed using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Results: The analysis resulted in five themes in which participants described their help-seeking experiences for substance use problems as lack of knowledge and access to information, scepticism towards a 'white system', fear of exclusion from family and ethnic community, racism as a barrier to help-seeking, and positive experiences and ideas for future treatment practices. Conclusion: This study provides an improved understanding of how migrants with substance use problems experience help-seeking in healthcare. The variety of barriers illustrates inequality in substance use care for East African migrants in Norway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on decolonization in settler contexts is characterized by an almost exclusive focus on the Anglo-French world, and by a marked emphasis on violence as the predominant feature of the settlers' reaction to change. This article aims to challenge this assumption. Eritrea – like the other former Italian colonies – is certainly a peculiar case of early, top-down decolonization; but the actors on the field were anything but passive spectators. In the 10 years in which the international community decided the fate of Eritrea, there were a lively political confrontation and an armed struggle with anti-colonial nuances, while the settlers organized themselves politically to defend their interests. The complex variety of strategies with which they reacted to the end of colonial power constitutes an example of the non-binary relationship between former colonizers and former colonized; it enriches our knowledge of how whites reacted to decolonization in Africa; and it helps to complicate the monolithic idea of settlers as an undifferentiated transnational category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ninety-six percent of the world's 3 million neonatal deaths occur in developing countries where the majority of births occur outside health facility. The objective of this study was to evaluate the demographic, clinical profile and outcome of neonates admitted to Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of Dekemhare Hospital of Eritrea. Methods: The study was a retrospective register-based review of all neonates admitted from January 2018 to December 2021 to Dekemhare Hospital. Overall, 509 neonates were enrolled in this study. Data were collected from neonatal register book from January 5 to February 5, 2022 by general practitioners using a predesigned data collection tool. Data entry was done using CSpro 7.3 and analyzed through SPSS version 22. Results were presented in frequencies, percent and odds ratio. Univariable and multivariable analysis was done to measure the association between the variables. Results: Three quarter (75.6%) of the neonates had normal birth weight and 80.0% were term. Majority (75.4%) of the neonates was delivered vaginally and 92.7% were delivered at health facility. Neonatal infection (33.0%), birth asphyxia (20%) and prematurity (14.3%) were the top three primary causes of neonatal admission to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Furthermore, 31% of neonatal deaths occurred during 24-72 hours of their life and the mortality rate was 16.3%. Multivariable analysis indicated that low birth weight (AOR: 7.28; 95%CI: 2.85-18.55) increased neonatal mortality. Whereas delivery at health facility (AOR: 0.17; 95%CI: 0.06–0.47), hospital stay 4-7 days (AOR: 0.06; 95% CI: 0.02-0.23) and above 8 days (AOR: 0.06; 95%CI: 0.02-0.23) were showing protective effect on neonatal mortality. Conclusion: Congenital abnormality, prematurity and birth asphyxia had higher case fatality rate. And, low birth weight, delivery at health facility and hospital stay were found to be predictors of neonatal mortality. Training of health professionals on neonatal resuscitation, further improvement on the diagnostic setup, treatment tools, infrastructure and raising community awareness to deliver at health facility are crucial to decrease the neonatal mortality in Eritrea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium (Ca2+) is one of the essential mineral nutrients for plant growth and development. However, the effects of long-term Ca2+ deficiency in orphan crops such as Tef [(Eragrostis tef) (Zucc.) Trotter], which accumulate high levels of Ca in the grains, remained unknown. Tef is a staple crop for nearly 70 million people in East Africa, particularly in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is one of the most nutrient-dense grains, and is also more resistant to marginal soils and climatic conditions than main cereals like corn, wheat, and rice. In this study, tef plants were grown in a hydroponic solution containing optimum (1 mM) or low (0.01 mM) Ca2+, and plant growth parameters and whole-genome transcriptome were analyzed. Ca+2-deficient plants exhibited leaf necrosis, leaf curling, and growth stunting symptoms. Ca2+ deficiency significantly decreased root and shoot Ca, potassium (K), and copper content in both root and shoots. At the same time, it greatly increased root iron (Fe) content, suggesting the role of Ca2+ in the uptake and/or translocation of these minerals. Transcriptomic analysis using RNA-seq revealed that members of Ca2+ channels, including the cyclic nucleotide-gated channels and glutamate receptor-like channels, Ca2+-transporters, Ca2+-binding proteins and Ca2+-dependent protein kinases were differentially regulated by Ca+2 treatment. Moreover, several Fe/metal transporters, including members of vacuolar Fe transporters, yellow stripe-like, natural resistance-associated macrophage protein, and oligo-peptide transporters, were differentially regulated between shoot and root in response to Ca2+ treatment. Taken together, our findings suggest that Ca2+ deficiency affects plant growth and mineral accumulation by regulating the transcriptomes of several transporters and signaling genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refugees children and families cope with the complexities and opportunities of living in a new country. Based on in‐depth interviews with Eritrean parents in Israel and the social workers who serve them, this article explores the relationship between exclusionary state policies, the negative social construction of refugees and parenthood experiences. It presents two main types of unparenting, which can be defined as the interrelation between structural power and the intimate parent–child relationship: direct unparenting, reflecting the physical and psychological impact on parenting of family deportations and welfare interventions in at‐risk situations and more veiled unparenting, reflecting the accrual of a lack of legal status and rights and its impact – and that of racism – on the lack of parental resources such as time, income, education, emotional availability and, ultimately, the ability to 'be parents'. Such precariousness further impairs parents' mental recovery, which in turn negatively impacts children's well‐being. Still, parents' resilience is demonstrated by their ability to manage work, family and community life. We conclude by noting a dearth in the research on the impact of socio‐political and legal contexts of the familial sphere, as well as the need to politicize social work practice with refugee children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of the College Of Basic Education is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Globally, preventable medication-related problems are increasing constantly. Patient-centered communication (PCC) is essential to identify and reduce the occurrence of drug-related problems such as inappropriate use of medications, adverse drug reactions and non-adherence. In Eritrea, personal observations and anecdotal reports showed that pharmacy professionals' practice towards PCC was unsatisfactory. This study was conducted to assess pharmacy professionals' knowledge, attitude, self-efficacy and barriers towards the practice of PCC. Methods: An analytical cross-sectional study design was employed among all pharmacy professionals who were employees of the drug retail outlets and hospital out-patient pharmacies of Asmara, Eritrea. A census approach was employed and data were collected from May to June 2021 using a face to face interview-based data collection tool. Descriptive and analytical statistics including independent samples t-test and multiple linear regression were employed using IBM SPSS (version-26). Results: A total of 79 pharmacy professionals with a median age of 36 (IQR: 20) years were included in the study. The mean (SD) knowledge score of PCC was found to be 11.91 (2.0) out of 17. Moreover, the mean (SD) attitude score was 39.55 (4.0) out of 60 and the overall mean (SD) self-efficacy score was 52.51 (12.0) out of 96. Self-efficacy was significantly correlated with attitude (p=0.015). Work setting (p=0.002) and training (p=0.045) were predictors for the sub-scales of self-efficacy 'exploring patient's perspectives' and 'dealing with communicative challenges', respectively. Workload/shortage of pharmacy professionals and time constraint were found to be the main barriers of the pharmacy professionals for not practicing PCC. Conclusion: Generally the pharmacy professionals' fairly encouraging knowledge and attitude score on PCC, it was not supported with their self-efficacy. This necessitates further attention from policy makers and health facility managers in creating an ideal working environment for the pharmacy professionals to practice PCC at their best. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Critical African Studies is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The lack of a sustainable flow of suitable potato varieties is a major contributing factor to low productivity and production of potato in Eritrea. This study examined the history of potato variety introductions to identify weaknesses, a path forward and enable the sustainable flow of suitable potato varieties to potato farmers. The research approaches included: reviewing the history of potato variety introductions to Eritrea, consultation with local and international stakeholders and a survey assessing potato variety preference. Over 70 varieties of potato have been introduced and 14 varieties approved through the official system but with only three currently available. Many farmers rely on poor-quality seed from unofficial sources. The analysis led to the identification of priorities for improvement: strengthening research institutions to create networks for potato variety sourcing; strengthening local regulatory institutions to implement registration and release standards; engaging potato farmers in the variety evaluation process; considering Plant Variety Protection and Plant Breeders Rights when establishing potato variety conservation; designing maintenance and multiplication strategies and also allowing the private sector to participate in potato variety seed sourcing and distribution. These options could be the basis of a roadmap making improved potato varieties and seeds available to potato farmers in Eritrea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Magazine General Union of Arab Archaeologists is the property of General Union of Arab Archaeologists and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Women are more vulnerable to mental health problems than men after migration, but little is known about the influence of religiosity/spirituality on their quality of life. The purpose of this study was to explore religiosity/spirituality, in relationships with various domains of quality of life, among female Eritrean refugees staying in Norwegian asylum centres. Method: A questionnaire assessing sociodemographic characteristics was used together with the World Health OrganizationQuality of Life – Spirituality, Religiosity and Personal Beliefs (WHOQOL-SRPB) questionnaire, which assesses religiosity/spirituality and domains of quality of life. A total of 63 adult female Eritrean refugees who had been granted asylum but were still living in asylum reception centres located in southern and central Norway participated. Results: Religiosity/spirituality was independently associated with psychological quality of life (B = 0.367, p <.001), level of independence (B = 0.184, p =.028), social quality of life (B = 0.500, p =.003), environmental quality of life (B = 0.323, p <.001) and overall quality of life (B = 0.213, p <.001), but not with physical quality of life (B = 0.056, p =.679). There were no significant differences between religious affiliations on religiosity/spirituality or quality of life measures. Conclusion: Consistent with previous research, this study highlights the correlation between religiosity/spirituality and overall quality of life. We recommend a longitudinal follow-up study of similar populations, after they are resettled and integrated into their host countries, to understand the associations between quality of life and religiosity/spirituality over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines species composition, diversity and plant community distribution along environmental gradients of Tulu Lafto Forest (here after called TLF) in Horo Guduru Wollega Zone of Oromia National Regional State, western Ethiopia. Seventy-five quadrats of 400 m2 were systematically laid following altitudinal gradient. A complete list of trees, shrubs, lianas and herbs including vascular epiphytes were made from each quadrat. Environmental variables including soil samples were collected, recorded and analyzed for each quadrat. In the forest, 230 plant species belonging to 188 genera and 79 families were identified. Out of these, 16 species are endemic to the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea and 56 were new records for Wollega (WG) floristic region. Asteraceae and Fabaceae are the top species rich plant families. Cluster analysis and ordination methods identified 3 plant community types mainly influenced by topographic, edaphic and anthropogenic factors. TLF exhibited an intermediate A fromontane type suggesting the need to revise the existing vegetation classification in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A 6-month isoniazid as tuberculosis preventive therapy (TPT) for people living with HIV (PLHIV) was nationally introduced in Eritrea in 2014. However, its effectiveness in preventing tuberculosis (TB) and duration of protection was questioned by physicians. This study was, therefore, conducted to evaluate the impact of the isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) primarily on the prevention of TB and duration of its protection in PLHIV. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted that selected all eligible PLHIV attending HIV care clinics in all national and regional referral hospitals in Eritrea. Data was collected from patients' clinical cards using a structured data extraction sheet. The association between use of IPT and outcomes of interest was assessed using a Cox proportional hazard regression model and Kaplan–Meier curve. Results: A total of 6803 patients were selected, which accounted for 75% of all PLHIV-accessing HIV care clinics in Eritrea. About 76% of patients were exposed to IPT while the remaining 24% were unexposed. The mean follow-up time was 4.9 years (SD 1.4). The incidence rate of TB was 1.7 and 10 cases per 1000 person-years in the exposed and unexposed, respectively. The unexposed had a higher risk of incident TB (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 3.75, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.89, 6.13) and all-cause mortality (HR 2.41, 95% CI 1.85, 3.14) compared to the exposed. A Kaplan–Meier curve showed that the exposed group had a higher TB-free follow-up probability (98.8%) compared to the unexposed (95%) at 65 months of follow-up (p < 0.001). IPT protection decreased rapidly 6 months after isoniazid completion. Conclusion: Use of a 6-month isoniazid as TPT was found to be effective in reducing incident TB in PLHIV-accessing HIV care clinics in Eritrea. However, the protection appeared to diminish soon, namely 6 months after completion of isoniazid, which warrants immediate attention from policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]