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Language, in various spheres of interaction has a reciprocal relationship. This implies that language shapes our ideas and interactions much in the same way that interactions shape language. People think in the language they learn, solve their problems in that medium. They learn experiences in that medium and convey by way of opinions, advice, requests, instructions or commands which they have learned to others. The military, as a unit of society has its language which is necessary because of the delicate nature of its operation. The aim of this study is to examine the use of an alternative vocabulary which in this sense, refers to the registers or jargons which are peculiar to the military for its peculiar needs. The data which was sourced from observation and others mainly from Nairaland, includes English and French terminologies that are associated with the military. The data was analyzed using relevance theory. Finding shows that the military has been able to maintain a high level of confidence in its operations because it encodes and upgrades its lexicon. The study concludes that the initiative of the military to have its terminology is commendable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research has shown that bilinguals outperform monolinguals on tasks requiring non-linguistic executive control skills, thereby generating an interest in the relationship between bilingual language processing and non-linguistic control abilities. Based on this, the present study further examined the bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control in unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals. These bilinguals completed a Flanker task in three types of language control contexts (i.e., L1, L2, and Mixed language contexts) in the interleaved word-comprehension-to-Flanker sequence and performed a picture-word matching task in three types of non-linguistic executive control contexts (i.e., color, shape and color-shape mixed contexts) in the interleaved color-shape-switching-toword-comprehension sequence. The results showed that the Flanker effect in mixed language context was smaller than in single (L1 and L2) context, suggesting language control leads to a better non-linguistic control ability. Additionally, the language switching cost was found smaller in the mixed task context (color/shape switching), indicating that non-linguistic control can enhance the language control ability. Therefore, we conclude that there is a bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control even in unbalanced bilinguals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a phenomenon known as translanguaging, multilingual learners draw freely from their repertoires without regard for language boundaries. Although multilingual learners live their lives between languages in their communities, science education is just beginning to acknowledge the important role of their hybrid language practices for learning. This study investigated one translingual science event in a fourth grade multilingual classroom focused on electrical phenomena. Expanding our prior study of a soil sample lab (Lemmi et al., 2021) this paper documented eight talk types that took place during the translingual exchanges during a snap circuit activity: (1) making comparisons, (2) asking and answering questions, (3) explaining, (4) giving directions, (5) making observations, (6) agreeing, (7) exclaiming, and (8) affirming. Our findings suggest that students' translingual participation serves valuable academic and social roles in the classroom and should be considered an important contribution to science learning. This work has implications for the ways in which teachers can support meaningful translingual learning spaces in science through the use of manipulatives and explicit invitation of hybrid languages practices. It also calls for expanding the field understanding of the purpose of translanguaging in science education to disrupt monolingual norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mixed language is formed through the systematic combination of subsystems from two source languages (Bakker 2017: 219). Defining features include the social history of a language and the ways in which the source language components are distributed in the mixed language, showing significant amounts of lexicon and/or grammar from each source. Yet it is possible for a language of this type to also have identifiable influence from a third language, still showing a dichotomy of source in that the three sources can be categorised into two groups. The Australian mixed language, Light Warlpiri, shows evidence of contributions from Warlpiri, on the one hand, and Kriol and English on the other. Interestingly, the reflexive-reciprocal subsystem of Light Warlpiri shows clear influence of English, in contrast to that of Kriol. Subsystems can each operate somewhat independently of other subsystems in terms of which sources they draw on and how they do so. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the debate on the ontological status of creoles and mixed languages by analyzing the Berbice Dutch language formation underlying assumptions of the two-stage genesis scenario proposed by the authors. Topics include differences between traditional languages and contact languages, including pidgins, creoles, and intertwined languages; and consequence of prior pidginhood resulting in a relative lack of grammatical complexity compared to traditional languages.

Berbice Dutch was a creole language spoken in the Republic of Guyana in South America, a country first under Dutch, and later under British colonial rule. Owing mainly to Silvia Kouwenberg (A grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole, De Gruyter Mouton, 1994), we were blessed with a detailed synchronic documentation of Berbice Dutch before its demise. However, the formation of the language remains clouded in mystery: its grammar and (basic) lexicon display a seemingly unique mixture of Dutch (Creole) and Eastern Ijo, as a result of which the language is often portrayed as a challenge to existing contact-linguistic theory. In this paper, a scenario is proposed that, rather than challenging the said theory, is fully grounded in it: it will be argued that the language was a case of serial glottogenesis: a first stage of creolisation was later followed by language mixing. The paper furthermore presents hitherto unknown historical data pertaining to the arrival of Ijo speakers in Berbice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the emergence of Berbice Dutch, detailing the process of "creolization" of Dutch in Berbice and questioning the definition of creoles. Topics include arrival of the slave ship Sint Antony Galeij and the importance of timing and demographics, the antiexceptionalist position which suggests that morphological impoverishment; and evolution of language varieties and the changing definition of creoles for a reevaluation of a language.

We provide a sketch grammar of a new bilingual mixed language based on data gathered through interaction with its last native speakers. The language, which we call Posha of Çankırı, is spoken in central Turkey. The source languages are Turkish and Lomavren, another bilingual mixed language for which the source languages are Armenian and some Central Indo-Aryan varieties. In Posha of Çankırı, the mixing happens in the nominal morphology and in the lexicon while the verbal roots and verbal morphology are entirely from the ancestral language, Lomavren, albeit with certain minor changes. The Indo-Aryan layer of vocabulary is rather thin and the Indo-Aryan retentions in grammar can only be speculated. We show that the emergence of Posha of Çankırı has been initiated by language shift, but that its ultimate defining characteristic is L2 insertions into (some distorted version of) the L1. The study contributes to the documentation of lesser known new varieties and touches upon topics such as the mechanism involved in the emergence of bilingual mixed languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how learners of English process adjectival participles in both attributive and predicative positions within sentences in order to identify whether difficulties associated with participles stem from learner-specific or English-specific characteristics. A Chinese-speaking group and a mixed language group participated in Study 1 that used the target sentence in English as L2 without contextual cues. A subgroup of the Chinese participants took part in Study 2 that used target sentences with contextual cues. Results showed that the two groups' performance was different in the use of pre-nominal attributive adjectival participles after controlling for English proficiency (Study 1). Contextual cues did not facilitate Chinese learners' performance (Study 2). The target word frequency effects disappeared when contextual cues were provided. These findings suggest that the complexities of adjectival participles reside not only in the linguistic characteristics of English, but also in the learner characteristics of L1 background and English proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A curated high-quality dataset of 12,698 YouTube comments and replies in Hindi-English code-mixed language for misogynistic attitude detection is proposed. • The dataset provides for two tasks- first to identify optimistic, pessimistic, or neutral attitude in content and then labelling comments into the categories of suggestion, appreciation, criticism, offensive, or none. • A set of algorithmic models comprising techniques from machine learning, deep learning and transformer-based models are applied. • The mBERT model gives best performance on both subtasks, with macro average F1 scores of 0.59 and 0.52, and weighted average F1 scores of 0.66 and 0.65, respectively. • The experimental evaluation and results confirm the suitability of the dataset and the real-world applications and future extension possibilities of the work are discussed. Social media platforms are now not only a medium for expressing users views, feelings, emotions and sentiments but are also being abused by people to propagate unpleasant and hateful content. Consequently, research efforts have been made to develop techniques and models for automatically detecting and identifying hateful, abusive, vulgar, and offensive content on different platforms. Although significant progress has been made on the task, the research on design of methods to detect misogynistic attitude of people in non-English and code-mixed languages is not very well-developed. Non-availability of suitable datasets and resources is one main reason for this. Therefore, this paper attempts to bridge this research gap by presenting a high-quality curated dataset in the Hindi-English code-mixed language. The dataset includes 12,698 YouTube comments and replies, with each comment annotated under two-level categories, first as optimistic and pessimistic, and then into different types at second level based on the content. The inter-annotator agreement in the dataset is found to be 0.84 for the first subtask, and 0.79 for the second subtask, indicating the reasonably high quality of annotations. Different algorithmic models are explored for the task of automatic detection of the misogynistic attitude expressed in the comments, with the mBERT model giving best performance on both subtasks (reported macro average F1 scores of 0.59 and 0.52, and weighted average F1 scores of 0.66 and 0.65, respectively). The analysis and results suggest that the dataset can be used for further research on the topic and that the developed algorithmic models can be applied for automatic detection of misogynistic attitude in social media conversations and posts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on neopragmatist semantics as a solution to the embedding problem faced by local expressivist views. Topics include how constructive neopragmatist semantics addresses the logical relations among complex sentences account of first-order predicate logic; and Mark Schroeder's initial strategy and proposes an alternative approach that avoids the reliance on heavyweight propositions and offers a representation-free account of belief and negation to mixed language arguments.

Helping preservice teachers use hybrid language representations in science is important if they are to become scientifically literate and able to engage in the discourse for understanding scientifiyc issues. Using hybrid language representations based on the framework of computer-supported collaborative learning, the teacher educator applied the 5Es instructional model to conduct a scientific literacy inquiry. The goal was to promote 13 PSTs' understanding of the Krebs cycle in a biochemistry course, using the representational language of emojis which is common in the Z generation's social interactions, to engage their attention and facilitate their understanding of the complex biochemical process. Although the PSTs demonstrated that they understood the relationship between the specific reactions in the Krebs cycle, there was no evidence that they could generalise this mode of thought and representation to other biochemical inquiry topics. Nevertheless, the study provides insight into the ways the use of the 5Es instructional model enhanced PSTs' motivation, interactions, and involvement during collaborative learning and acknowledges the vital role of a self-study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ei language (or Wu-se) is a mixed language derived from Chinese and the Kam-Tai languages. This paper focuses on the status of Ei and its formation process. The ancestors of the Ei people were soldiers and their families from different ethnic groups, who were sent to the Patrol Division of E'jing Town, Rong County, Guangxi Province in the Ming Dynasty, some 600 years ago. They are a multi-ethnic fusion of Chinese, Zhuang, Kam, and Sui peoples. The Ei language resulted from contact between Chinese and Kam-Tai languages. Its core words are mainly Kam-Tai, and the commonly-used words are mainly Chinese. The word order is basically the same as Chinese, and its voiceless sonorants are consistent with Kam-Sui phonology. The root causes of its formation are the Ei speakers' ethnic identity as well as their stable and relatively closed life circles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I discuss the various functions of nominalization in Wutun, a mixed Sinitic language spoken by ca. 4000 people in Qinghai Province, Northwest China. Nominalization in Wutun is expressed by the multi-purpose marker -de (cognate to Standard Mandarin de 的), which functions on both the lexical and clausal levels. Lexical nominalization takes the verb as its domain to derive nouns or adjectives, while clausal nominalization takes the entire clause as its domain and allows the clause to be treated as a noun phrase. Clausal nominalization in Wutun is used to form nominal complement clauses, relative clauses and adverbial subordinate clauses. In addition, the multi-purpose marker -de in Wutun has functions that go beyond nominalization, including pronominal function, pre-nominal modification and stand-alone usage, which is related to aspect and emphasis and plays an important role in stance-taking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is ethnically and linguistically diverse. There are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in the country, including the majority Han, with a 1.2 billion-strong population and Tatar, the smallest minority group with only 3,556 people residing in Xinjiang, according to the 2010 Population Census of the People's Republic of China, the latest census data available on the government's website (www.stats.gov.cn). The Han accounts for 91.6% of the population, with the minorities taking up the balance of 8.4%. Most ethnic groups have their own languages, which fall into typologically distinct language families, the largest being Altaic and Sino-Tibetan. Ethnologue lists 299 languages in China and rates the country 0.521 in linguistic diversity, compared with 0.035 for Japan and 0.010 for South Korea (Simons & Fennig 2017). A few ethnic groups, such as the Hui (Chinese Muslims) and the Manchus, who founded the last imperial dynasty of Qing (1644–1912), have lost their indigenous languages over the centuries. They speak the language of the Han majority. Linguistic diversity in China is manifested in two ways: across the ethnic groups and within the Han majority. In what follows, we give a schematic description of the languages and briefly summarize the papers in this issue that offer a snapshot of language contact in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we investigate a special type of CS below word level, which is observed in mixed compound words. In particular, we discuss mixed Italian–German compounds; this combination is particularly interesting since, in the two languages, the process of compounding follows different rules for what concerns the position of the head, as well as gender and number inflection. An Acceptability Judgment Task was administered to some bilingual speakers, who assessed the acceptability of mixed compounds inserted in both German and Italian clauses. Our conclusion is that it is possible to have mixed compounds, though this option is severely constrained, especially because of the different word order parameters exhibited by the two languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the emergence of a hortative marker in Guaraché, a new mixed language in Paraguay, the result of language mixing of the Indigenous Aché language and Paraguayan Guaraní. After settlement on reservations, the formerly nomadic Aché hunter-gatherers began shifting to the national language Guaraní, resulting in Guaraché, which is currently learned by children as their first language. Guaraché speakers have incorporated parts of the lexicon and morphology from Aché and Guaraní into their verbal repertoires, including parts of the Guaraní inflectional morphology. Thereby, they are modeling their use of the Guaraní 1pl.in marker ja-/ña- on a specific function that it has in Guaraní, hortative mood. Neither Aché nor Guaraní have grammatical hortative markers. Such a reanalysis and transfer of only one function of ja-/ña- suggests that a novel grammatical distinction is emerging between ja-/ña- for the hortative and the free pronoun ñande/nande for all other cases of 1pl.in. This paper analyzes hortative constructions in a corpus of recordings of naturally occurring interactions from children and adults. This case of grammaticalization is a strong indicator of a gradual transformation of Guaraché from language-mixing practices into a new mixed language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rumors can easily propagate through social media, posing potential threats to both individual and public health. Most existing approaches focus on single-language rumor detection, which leads to unsatisfying performance when these are applied to mixed-language rumor detection. Meanwhile, the type of mixed-language (mixture of word-level or sentence-level) is a great challenge for mixed-language rumor detection. In this paper, focusing on a mixed scene of Chinese and Tibetan, the research first provides a Chinese–Tibetan mixed-language rumor detection dataset (Weibo_Ch_Ti) that comprises 1,617 non-rumor tweets and 1,456 rumor tweets in two mixed-language types. Then, the research proposes an effective model with multi-extractors, named "MER-CTRD" for short. This model mainly consists of three extractors. The Multi-task Extractor helps the model to extract feature representations of different mixed-language types adaptively. The Rich-semantic Extractor enriches the semantic features representations of Tibetan in the Chinese–Tibetan-mixed language. The Fusion-feature Extractor fuses the mean and disparity semantic features of Chinese and Tibetan to complement feature representations of the mixed language. Finally, the research conducts experiments on Weibo_Ch_Ti. The results show that the proposed model improves accuracy by about 3%–12% over the baseline models, indicating its effectiveness in the Chinese–Tibetan mixed-language rumor detection scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Drawing on Kenyan hip-hop, this article: (1) illustrates the decolonial possibilities of translingualism, including paths to linguistic decolonization; (2) showcases how translingualism can facilitate the recovery of Indigenous hybrid languaging practices; (3) highlights how global Western capitalism threatens translingualism's decolonial potential; and (4) offers further implications for rhetoric and writing scholars and teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores intergenerational changes in Gurindji Kriol, in order to determine whether differences between adults and children are the result of an abrupt generational shift or an extended acquisition process. We analyse the production of Gurindji in the speech of five age groups of Gurindji Kriol speakers, using a set of 176 picture-prompt narratives from 70 different speakers. The data is analysed both synchronically (in apparent-time) and diachronically (in real-time). The synchronic snapshot of the data reveals that adults use significantly more Gurindji than children which can be interpreted as a generational shift towards Kriol. Nonetheless the real-time data shows that most children increase their use of Gurindji as they age which suggests an extended acquisition of Gurindji. Although contradictory on the surface, this study argues that these processes are occurring in tandem, with the extended acquisition of Gurindji by children slowing down the intergenerational shift towards Kriol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Israbic is a language variety that is spoken by a majority of the Druze community in Israel and is characterised by a mixture of Israeli Hebrew and Palestinian Arabic. Longitudinal data of Palestinian Arabic/Israeli Hebrew code-switching from the Israeli Druze community collected in 2000, 2017 and 2018 indicate that Israbic went through a gradual process of language mixing. The process started with code-switching, was followed by a composite matrix language formation and ultimately resulted in a mixed language. Some linguists (see Backus, 2003 ; Bakker, 2003) claim that mixed languages cannot arise out of code-switching. Conversely, others (see Auer, 1999 ; Myers-Scotton, 2003) have proposed theoretical models to mixed languages as outcomes of code-switching, and some (see McConvell, 2008 ; McConvel and Meakins, 2005 ; Meakins, 2012 ; O'Shannessy, 2012) have provided empirical evidence under which mixed languages arise out of code-switching. This research sought to gather further empirical evidence showing that Israbic is another mixed language that arose out of code-switching. This study also wished to emphasise the uniqueness of Israbic, which is a mixture of closely related languages. Such mixtures are scarce in the literature (Auer, 2014). An examination of Israbic in relation to Auer's and Myers-Scotton's models and general definitions in the literature and comparisons of Israbic with other widely accepted mixed languages reveals that Israbic is an excellent example of a mixed language. However, such models and definitions are based on existing languages that have been subject to discussion in the literature. Of these languages, the majority arose from contact between languages from different language families, whereas this study is concerned with investigating a mixed language from the same language family. Thus, this raises the question as to whether such concepts have the same validity for closely related languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What exactly happens to a mixed language’s system in a multilingual contact setting? This study aims to investigate the interactions between speakers’ exposure to, frequency of, and proficiency in four languages (English, Tagalog, Hokkien, and Mandarin) and their influences on the why-fronting only wh-question system of Lánnang-uè, a mixed language used by the metropolitan Manila Lannangs. It also aims to test the validity of the assertion that symbiotic mixed languages are more likely to be in flux.The Lánnang-uè speakers participated in production and acceptability experiments.Likelihood to front (production) and responses to a 7-point Likert-type scale (acceptability) were the dependent variables for several Bayesian linear mixed-effects models with age, frequency of language use, and language proficiency as primary fixed effects, sociolinguistic factors (e.g., attitudes, identity) as covariates, and participant (and when appropriate, item) as a random effect.Both production and acceptability results showed that the effects of contact are numerous and far from homogeneous. They vary depending on the source language, wh-phrase type, and degree of consciousness. They corroborate the widely held belief that mixed languages are less stable in symbiotic contexts. However, this paper goes an extra step to show that this “instability” or variability is not always a consequence of contact-induced transfer. It demonstrates that when the source languages influence the stability or development of the mixed language, the effects can be diverse, encompassing aspects such as identity processes, language attitudes, structural transfer, and/or other sociolinguistic innovations.This article is one of the first studies to examine the effects of contact between multiple languages on a mixed language variable using both production and acceptability experimental data in a five-language context. It is one of the very few variationist works in the Philippines that considers the effects of multilingualism on variation and change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This section presents a correction to the article "Language in the Middle: Class and Sexuality on the Hinglish Continuum," by K. Hall, published in a 2021 issue.