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Research has established positive associations between informal digital activities and vocabulary knowledge. However, understanding how different types of digital activities relate to various aspects of vocabulary knowledge is limited. This study examined how the purpose of informal digital activities and strategic engagement during and/or after technological activities relate to receptive (meaning recognition) and productive (form recall) knowledge of form-meaning links as well as knowledge of word association. Structural Equation Modelling analysis of the questionnaire and vocabulary test data from 339 university EFL learners revealed that two purpose factors (informal digital activities for instructional and socialization purposes) and two strategic engagement factors (dual focus on meaning and form; depth of lexical processing) were key determinants of form-meaning mapping. The interplay of purpose and strategic engagement manifested differently for receptive and productive knowledge of form-meaning links. In contrast, depth of lexical processing was the only predictor of knowledge of word association. The findings underscore activity purpose and strategic engagement as crucial factors in researching and bolstering the relationship between informal digital activities and different aspects of vocabulary knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory (WM) may be an essential component of incidental vocabulary learning and retention from captioned videos. However, how WM affects young learners' incidental vocabulary learning under different types of captions remains unclear. The present study employs a between-subject research design. The main purpose is to examine how two types of WM— phonological short-term memory and complex WM—impact vocabulary learning outcomes incidentally learned and retained from three types of captioning: (1) glossed captions (GCs), (2) full captions (FCs), and (3) keyword captions (KCs). A total of 125 young learners (Mage = 12.17, SD = 1.06) watched four videos and completed two vocabulary tests administered as pretest, posttest, and delayed tests. After treatment, participants completed two WM tasks: (1) an operation span test for measuring complex WM, and (2) a nonword repetition test for measuring phonological short-term memory. The findings reveal that (1) captioning types, particularly GCs, led to the best outcome in incidental vocabulary learning and retention, and (2) phonological WM provided a more predictive effect on incidental vocabulary learning and retention than complex WM. Phonological and complex WM may have different predictive effects on incidental vocabulary learning and retention under different types of captioning. Relevant implications were discussed based on these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims and objectives: Prior research shows that bilingual pupils may have foreign language learning advantages over monolinguals, but evidence is controversial. Investigating English as a foreign language (EFL) in the context of the Netherlands, we hypothesized that the conflicting findings may be partly explained by differences in extramural EFL exposure. We further predicted that amount and length of EFL exposure might moderate the effects of bilingualism on EFL learning and cross-language relationships between English and the previously acquired languages. Approach: Twelve- to 14-year-old Turkish–Dutch bilinguals (n = 30) and Dutch monolinguals (n = 31) participated. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was used to measure receptive vocabulary in English, Dutch, and Turkish. Grammatical ability was measured with a sentence repetition task. A questionnaire was used to obtain information on children's language exposure. Data and analysis: Data were analyzed by means of multilevel linear regression. Amount and length of extramural exposure were used as control variables in the analyses comparing EFL skills of bilinguals and monolinguals. The role of exposure as a moderator of bilingual effects and cross-language relationships was also tested. Findings/conclusions: If differences in exposure were not taken into account, the bilinguals were outperformed by the monolinguals on EFL vocabulary, but not on grammar. However, the between-group difference disappeared once exposure measures were controlled for. Bilinguals with little exposure to English performed worse than monolingual peers, but at higher exposure levels, bilinguals outperformed monolinguals. In the bilingual sample, Dutch vocabulary predicted English vocabulary, but Turkish proficiency did not predict English skills. Originality: This is the first study to include measures of extramural exposure in investigating the effects of bilingualism on EFL learning. Significance/implications: This research shows that differences between monolingual and bilingual EFL learners can be either concealed or inflated if exposure is not controlled for. Furthermore, exposure moderates bilingual effects in EFL learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract\nAbstract in Spanish\nPLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARYPeer-to-peer interaction research contends that learning stems from both language-related episodes (LREs), which feature overt discussions about the language, and overall peer-to-peer interaction that does not focus on the language itself. However, most studies examining language gains have centred on the former and the extent to which learning can occur without paying joint attention to the language (i.e. implicitly) remains under-researched, especially in young learners’ (YLs) acquisition of vocabulary. Moreover, task modality has been identified as a variable affecting students’ interaction and, potentially, language gains. This paper tries to fill these gaps by analysing the lexical gains and their relationship to LREs (including resolution) and to overall interaction in a productive vocabulary pretest/post-test by 34 Basque/Spanish bilingual YLs in Grades 4 and 6 (aged 9–10 and 11–12, respectively) after completing an oral+oral or an oral+written storytelling task in pairs. Lexical gains were observed both in words that were the focus of their LREs and in words that were produced during YLs’ interaction but were not part of an LRE, suggesting both explicit and implicit learning. The oral+oral task appeared to favour implicit learning whereas the oral+written task seemed to be more conducive to explicit learning.La investigación sobre la interacción entre pares entiende que el aprendizaje resulta tanto de los episodios relacionados con el lenguaje (ERLs), que suponen discusiones explícitas sobre la lengua, como del resto de la interacción que no se centra en el lenguaje en sí. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los estudios que examinan las ganancias lingüísticas se han enfocado en los primeros y, por tanto, es necesario esclarecer hasta qué punto la falta de atención conjunta al lenguaje puede derivar en aprendizaje, especialmente en el caso del aprendizaje de vocabulario en jóvenes aprendices. Además, se ha observado que la modalidad de la tarea también influye en la interacción entre los estudiantes y, potencialmente, en las ganancias lingüísticas. En este sentido, este artículo analiza las ganancias léxicas en un test de vocabulario productivo con diseño pre-/post-test completado por jóvenes aprendices bilingües en castellano y euskera de 4º y 6º de Primaria tras realizar una tarea de narración oral o escrita en parejas. Se han observado ganancias léxicas tanto en las palabras en las que se centraban durante un ERL como en las palabras que se produjeron durante su interacción sin ser parte de un ERL, lo cual sugiere tanto aprendizaje implícito como explícito. La tarea oral pareció favorecer un aprendizaje implícito mientras que la tarea escrita promovió un aprendizaje más explícito.When learners work together to complete a collaborative task, they engage in language discussions (known as language-related episodes [LREs]), where they explicitly discuss different aspects of the language they are using to ensure appropriate communication. In the case of low-proficient students, such as young learners (YLs), vocabulary plays a central role in communication. Previous studies have focused on analysing LREs, especially relevant for the acquisition of grammar, but have not captured the implicit learning opportunities of lexis that a collaborative task may offer. Moreover, carrying out the task with or without written output can change the focus of attention. Hence, this study analyses the acquisition of vocabulary in YLs from Grades 4 and 6 after carrying out an oral+oral or an oral+written storytelling task. To do so, students completed a productive vocabulary test before and after the task to track lexical gains. Results show that vocabulary can be learnt both explicitly and implicitly in the context of a collaborative task, which means that teachers can use a storytelling task to foster vocabulary learning. Moreover, carrying out the task only orally appears to favour implicit (or incidental) learning as no overt attention is being paid to lexis, whereas the oral+written task seems to foster explicit learning resulting from the explicit attention to language in the form of LREs. This study informs teaching practices by providing empirical data as regards the use of an oral+oral or an oral+written storytelling task to promote lexical development in YLs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates whether participating in digital storytelling (DST) activities improves language learning and the technical computer skills required for this type of project. Moreover, the present investigation also directly explored the learning benefits and elements of contextualization derived from maintaining a personal digital learning narrative (PDLN). Participants were given a term project as group work that involved creating collaborative digital stories. Each group member took responsibility for the group DST projects and concurrently reported contextual personal elements into their PDLNs. A mixed methods methodology was applied to investigate the learning outcomes of the digital story project in terms of language learning and technical knowledge of DST and to explore elements of contextualization that emerged in the PDLNs during student preparation for the collaborative tasks. The findings reveal improved performance on the DS vocabulary and comprehension test, and the DST knowledge test. In addition, elements of contextualization were identified as fitting into three subcategories: the use of the technology at hand, the story text, and spatiotemporal details during the realization of the group project. In addition, feelings of determination, frustration, and motivation were observed through self-reports, classroom notes, videos, and student narrations from the PDLNs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated how multimedia glossing affects incidental vocabulary learning from a listening task on mobile devices. A total of 118 English language learners were asked to listen to a story with 25 glossed target words on their mobile phones. In order to examine the effects of different types of glossing, participants were divided into four groups with access to four glosses during their listening: L1 textual, L2 textual, L1 textual and pictorial, and L2 textual and pictorial. Two vocabulary tests (i.e. definition-supply test and meaning-recognition test) were administrated immediately after treatment and two weeks later to measure vocabulary gain for target words. The results indicated that participants who had access to L1 textual and pictorial glosses had significantly higher vocabulary gains than other conditions, especially in meaning-recall word knowledge. Finally, a detailed discussion of the findings was provided to explain the results based on the theoretical framework of the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domain-specific vocabulary, which is crucial in fields such as Information Retrieval and Natural Language Processing, requires continuous updates to remain effective. Incremental Learning, unlike conventional methods, updates existing knowledge without retraining from scratch. This paper presents an incremental learning algorithm for updating domain-specific vocabularies. It introduces DocLib, an archive used to capture a compact footprint of previously seen data and vocabulary terms. Task-based evaluation measures the effectiveness of the updated vocabulary by using vocabulary terms to perform a downstream task of text classification. The classification accuracy gauges the effectiveness of the vocabulary in discerning unseen documents related to the domain. Experiments illustrate that multiple incremental updates maintain vocabulary relevance without compromising its effectiveness. The proposed algorithm ensures bounded memory and processing requirements, distinguishing it from conventional approaches. Novel algorithms are introduced to assess the stability and plasticity of the proposed approach, demonstrating its ability to assimilate new knowledge while retaining old insights. The generalizability of the vocabulary is tested across datasets, achieving 97.89% accuracy in identifying domain-related data. A comparison with state-of-the-art techniques using a benchmark dataset confirms the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Importantly, this approach extends beyond classification tasks, potentially benefiting other research fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bilingual children's total vocabulary in each of their languages is often smaller than that of monolinguals. In their seminal study, Bialystok et al. (2010. 'Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children.' Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 13 (4): 525–531) divided children's vocabulary into 'home' and 'school' words and found no differences in bilinguals' knowledge of 'school' words compared to monolinguals. In Study 1, we asked 292 parents and teachers to categorize words into 'home' or 'school' contexts, and in Study 2, we analyzed the vocabulary of 220 Polish-English bilingual and monolingual (English and Polish) children aged 4.5–7. The results show that bilinguals knew fewer 'home' and 'school' words than monolinguals in each language. However, bilinguals were likely to be exposed to these words either at home or at school, whereas monolinguals would hear them in both contexts. For a small subset of English words that bilinguals heard in both contexts, bilinguals showed similar performance to monolinguals. Our results provide evidence for exposure effects in vocabulary acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The effect of cognitive reserve (CR) on cognition in people with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (pwRRMS) has been partially investigated. Objectives: We aimed to explore the long-term cognitive trajectories of pwRRMS based on their CR, measured using the Vocabulary Knowledge Test (VOC). Methods: 78 pwRRMS underwent a neuropsychological evaluation at baseline and after a mean follow-up of 6.5 years. We carried out several mixed-design ANCOVA to test the effect of CR on longitudinal cognitive trajectories, controlling for the effects of disability and depression. Regression analyses were performed to assess the clinical predictors of longitudinal cognitive variation. Results: At follow-up, we observed improvements in cognitive scores within pwRRMS with high CR and a decline within pwRRMS with low CR. VOC scores increased at follow-up evaluation in the whole sample, and this change was associated with the female sex. VOC emerged as the only predictor of cognitive changes over time. Conclusions: CR, estimated by VOC, can increase over time by engaging in intellectually enriching activities, and may predict long-term cognitive outcomes in pwRRMS. The identification of pwRRMS with low CR, and therefore, most at risk of future cognitive decline, should prompt the implementation of CR enhancement interventions to delay the onset of cognitive impairment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the extent to which first language (L1) utterance fluency measures can predict second language (L2) fluency and how L2 proficiency moderates the relationship between L1 and L2 fluency. A total of 104 Japanese-speaking learners of English completed different argumentative speech tasks in their L1 and L2. Their speaking performance was analysed using measures of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. L2 proficiency was operationalised as cognitive fluency. Two factor scores of cognitive fluency—linguistic resources and processing speed—were computed based on performance in a set of linguistic knowledge tests capturing vocabulary knowledge, morphosyntactic processing, and articulatory skills. A series of generalised linear mixed-effects models revealed small-to-moderate effect sizes for the predictive power of L1 utterance fluency measures on their L2 counterparts. Moderator effects of L2 proficiency were found only in speed fluency measures. The relationship between L1 and L2 speed fluency was weaker for L2 learners with wider L2 linguistic resources. Conversely, for those with faster L2 processing speed, the L1-L2 link tended to be stronger. These findings indicate that the L1-L2 fluency link is subject to the complex interplay of phonological differences between learners' L1 and L2 and their L2 proficiency, offering implications for diagnostic speaking assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aimed to explore receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge among 278 (N = 278) freshmen EFL students in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their vocabulary knowledge was measured by Vocabulary Levels Tests targeting words that belong to 2000, 3000 and 5000 frequency levels. This vocabulary knowledge was assessed in relation to a few factors, namely, the self-rated overall English proficiency, the average EFL grade during elementary and high school, the type of high school attended, and the length of formal EFL learning. The students achieved much higher scores on the receptive than productive knowledge measure, the former ranging from M = 9.94 to M = 13.95, and the latter from M = 4.45 to M = 8.78, with the gap between receptive and productive scores being the greatest between scores for 3000 frequency level words. The results of MANOVA and ANOVA statistical tests showed that all the aforementioned factors, except for the length of learning English, significantly impacted both receptive and productive EFL vocabulary knowledge. This study is expected to significantly contribute to current understanding of EFL learning, and vocabulary knowledge development as its integral part, in the Global South context. It will offer both students and teachers a valuable assessment of the current situation, along with practical guidelines for further improvement in this respect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article compares two methods for detecting local item dependence (LID): residual correlation examination and Rasch testlet modeling (RTM), in a commonly used 3:6 matching format and an extended matching test (EMT) format. The two formats are hypothesized to facilitate different levels of item dependency due to differences in the number of options and instructions regarding option recycling. The findings indicate that (1) RTM allows deeper LID inspection compared to residual correlation examination in matching tests, and (2) the EMT format has good resistance to LID while the traditional 3:6 format does not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated EFL students' perceptions of how listening to online stories impacts incidental vocabulary acquisition. Conducted at an English department at a public university in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the research examined cognitive processes and assessment methods related to vocabulary learning, including dynamic and self-assessment. Quantitative results showed that listening to online stories significantly improved incidental vocabulary acquisition, with a mean score of 3.59 ± 0.84. About 89.8% of students reported enhanced vocabulary, covering aspects such as word recognition, formation, and usage, while 84.2% observed better word recognition in different contexts. Additionally, 80% of students found that online stories were more effective than reading for increasing vocabulary knowledge. Self-assessment also played a significant role in understanding vocabulary acquisition processes, with a mean score of 3.70 ± 0.90. Qualitative results identified six key methods for assessing vocabulary acquisition: dynamic assessment, technology-based tools, vocabulary tests, self-assessment, vocabulary journals, and storytelling assignments. Vocabulary journals were identified for their effectiveness in developing cognitive skills, functional vocabulary use, and contextual understanding, and reinforcing retention through repetition. The study underscores the benefits of online stories for authentic vocabulary learning and suggests incorporating modern methods, such as mobile applications, to extend English learning beyond the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the extent of vocabulary knowledge among Saudi students who have recently graduated from secondary school, and its potential connection to their performance in English. The study involved 83 participants taking the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test by Webb et al. (2017). The findings reveal that the mean score of the test is below expectations: minimum scores suggested by Webb et al. (2017) are 29/30 for the first three word levels (1,000, 2,000, and 3,000) and 24/30 for the last two word levels (4,000 and 5,000). However, the average scores for participants in the study are 22.6/30 for the 1,000-word level, 16.4/30 for the 2,000-word level, 9.3/30 for the 3,000-word level, 8.9/30 for the 4,000-word level, and 7.7/30 for the 5,000-word level. These low scores could indicate an inadequate performance in English and imply that participants will struggle with receptive and productive skills. Therefore, a thorough evaluation of the EFL curriculum from K-12, especially for teaching vocabulary, is strongly recommended. Moreover, the adequacy of learners' vocabulary knowledge will be a crucial boost for their performance in communicative tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This mixed method study examined the effects that a Self-Regulated Multimedia Cognitive Learning Model, infused with internationally acclaimed effective instructional vocabulary strategies, had on the vocabulary acquisition skills of adult English Learners enrolled in a college course. Outcome measures included vocabulary pretests and posttests, surveys, and participant interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired samples t-tests whereas qualitative data was analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. Findings were statistically significant across all six vocabulary tests, with large effect sizes. Overall, adult English Learners perceived the vocabulary instruction using a Self-Regulated Multimedia Cognitive Learning Model to be beneficial to their vocabulary learning and useful for generalization purposes outside of the classroom. Future research and implications for practice are also offered for the use of the Self-Regulated Multimedia Cognitive Learning Model to improve second language learning and the college success rates of English Learners in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vocabulary tests, once a cornerstone of language modeling evaluation, have been largely overlooked in the current landscape of Large Language Models (LLMs) like Llama 2, Mistral, and GPT. While most LLM evaluation benchmarks focus on specific tasks or domain-specific knowledge, they often neglect the fundamental linguistic aspects of language understanding. In this paper, we advocate for the revival of vocabulary tests as a valuable tool for assessing LLM performance. We evaluate seven LLMs using two vocabulary test formats across two languages and uncover surprising gaps in their lexical knowledge. These findings shed light on the intricacies of LLM word representations, their learning mechanisms, and performance variations across models and languages. Moreover, the ability to automatically generate and perform vocabulary tests offers new opportunities to expand the approach and provide a more complete picture of LLMs' language skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disentangling the evolution mysteries of the human brain has always been an imperative endeavor in neuroscience. Although many previous comparative studies revealed genetic, brain structural and connectivity distinctness between human and other nonhuman primates, the brain evolutional mechanism is still largely unclear. Here, we proposed to embed the brain anatomy of human and macaque in the developmental chronological axis to construct cross-species predictive model to quantitatively characterize brain evolution using two large public human and macaque datasets. We observed that applying the trained models within-species could well predict the chronological age. Interestingly, we found the model trained in macaque showed a higher accuracy in predicting the chronological age of human than the model trained in human in predicting the chronological age of macaque. The cross-application of the trained model introduced an individual brain cross-species age gap index to quantify the cross-species discrepancy along the temporal axis of brain development and was found to be associated with the behavioral performance in visual acuity test and picture vocabulary test in human. Taken together, our study situated the cross-species brain development along the chronological axis, which highlighted the disproportionately anatomical development in human brain to extend our understanding of the potential evolutionary effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Second language (L2) viewing with captions (i.e., L2 on‐screen text) is now a proliferating as well as promising area of L2 acquisition research. The goal of the present meta‐analysis was to examine (a) the relationship between captioned viewing and incidental vocabulary learning and (b) what variables related to learners, treatment, methodology, and vocabulary tests moderate the captioning effect. Synthesizing 89 effect sizes from 49 primary studies (i.e., independent experiments), we fitted a multilevel meta‐analysis model with restricted maximum likelihood estimation to calculate the overall effect size based on a standardized mean difference of gain scores between captioned viewing and uncaptioned viewing groups. The results showed a medium effect of captioning on L2 vocabulary learning, g = 0.56, p <.001. Moderator analysis indicated moderating effects of instructional level, target audience of video materials, and administration of vocabulary pretest. These results are discussed with the aim of guiding future research and language learning through viewing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis study employed an explanatory sequential mixed methods design to investigate the impact of digital escape rooms (DER) on second language (L2) vocabulary achievement, retention, and learning motivation. Two intact classes comprising 30 Persian-speaking intermediate English language learners in a city in Iran were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Both groups received a 10-week vocabulary instruction, with the experimental group incorporating DERs into their instruction. The DERs involved interactive and mobile-assisted games utilizing clues, riddles, props, crossword games, and puzzles, which were completed both inside and outside the classroom. In contrast, the control group received lecture-based instruction. The participants were assessed using a vocabulary knowledge test, the learning motivation scale (LMS), and semistructured interviews. The quantitative analysis indicated a significant positive effect of DERs on L2 learners’ vocabulary achievement, retention, and learning motivation. These findings were further supported by the qualitative phase, where learners reported positive effects of DERs on their motivation and the engagement they experienced throughout the learning process. In sum, this study contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence on the effectiveness of incorporating DERs in promoting L2 vocabulary achievement, retention, and learning motivation. The findings highlight the potential of DERs as interactive and mobile-assisted games to enhance engagement, motivation, and successful vocabulary learning in L2 contexts, providing valuable insights for educators, curriculum developers, and researchers interested in innovative instructional approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past two decades, the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) has become a popular buzzword in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Although applications of the ILH can improve students' learning of productive vocabulary, this effect appears to be transitory. Students' learning of productive vocabulary often fades over time, as shown in delayed productive vocabulary tests. To address this problem, the present study investigated the effect of supplementing the ILH with vocabulary-use knowledge on students' productive vocabulary performance. We designed two WeChat applets, namely Applet 0.0 and Applet 1.0. The design of Applet 0.0 was based solely on the ILH, whereas Applet 1.0 was guided by the ILH supplemented with vocabulary-use knowledge, with the latter consisting of grammatical functions (the grammatical patterns that a word can fit into), collocations (other words that appear together with a word), and constraints on use (the situations in which a word is used). Fifty-one English foreign language undergraduates were assigned to a control group (CG) or an experimental group (EG). Both groups completed a weekly paragraph-writing task as they learned vocabulary with the applets (the CG used Applet 0.0 and the EG used Applet 1.0). The results suggested an advantage for the ILH supplemented with vocabulary-use knowledge over the ILH alone for productive vocabulary performance. Moreover, mobile-assisted language learners' language proficiency levels did not influence the effectiveness of the ILH (with or without vocabulary-use knowledge) on productive vocabulary performance. The EG students' perceptions of the WeChat-mediated Mobile-Assisted Language Learning approach are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In perceptual studies, musicality and pitch aptitude have been implicated in tone learning, while vocabulary size has been implicated in distributional (segment) learning. Moreover, working memory plays a role in the overnight consolidation of explicit-declarative L2 learning. This study examines how these factors uniquely account for individual differences in the distributional learning and consolidation of an L2 tone contrast, where learners are tonal language speakers, and the training is implicit. Following a previous study investigating distributional tone learning, 66 L1-Cantonese participants who learned and consolidated a Mandarin level-falling tone contrast through distributional exposure were measured in a pitch threshold task, Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia, Mandarin Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and an Operation Span task. Pitch threshold predicted immediate learning improvement while working memory predicted overnight consolidation by a bimodal group (not a unimodal group). The findings imply that pitch aptitude may be important in encoding stepwise tonal tokens, and the predictive power of working memory in overnight consolidation extends to implicit tone learning. Meanwhile, musical aptitude may not confer an additional advantage for speakers with native-tone experiences, and learners with a larger L2 vocabulary size might have resisted adaptation to distributional exposure because of robust L2 tonal representations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite accumulating evidence, accounts for the efficacy of reading-while-listening (RWL) in facilitating vocabulary learning are largely unexamined, hindering a thorough understanding of the reasons underlying the usefulness of such bimodal input. In this article, we report a close replication of Malone (2018), purposefully manipulating the participants' native language background to shed light on whether the auditory component in RWL promotes spoken-written form mappings. One hundred and eighty-eight English learners from Austria, Belgium, Hong Kong, and Beijing read or read and listened to four stories containing target words for learning. They completed two surprise vocabulary tests and two assessments of working memory capacity. We only replicated a correlation between working memory capacity and the form recognition test reported in the initial study. Thanks to our manipulation, we discovered an important role of L1 background in the effectiveness of RWL for form recognition knowledge. We discuss the implications for RWL research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study reports a preliminary exploration of the online collection of language assessment data in the author's PhD project under the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic. It describes the challenges the author met, details the adaptations she made, and delineates its implications. Specifically, the data collection in this project involved remotely delivering three vocabulary tests and one speaking task to EFL learners in mainland China and collecting the results of these tests. In this process, the author trialed, pilot-tested, and compared three test-administering modes: first an asynchronous mode (Wenjuanwang), then a synchronous mode (Tencent Meeting), and finally a return to an asynchronous mode (Super Star Learning). It is hoped that this exploratory investigation into these technology-enhanced online methods will add a different perspective and present a multifaceted view for data collection of language assessment research during and after this pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and inference-making during real-time reading comprehension in Spanish-speaking adolescents, addressing an important gap in the literature. A large sample of adolescents (n = 265) aged between 11 and 18 were asked to perform a self-paced reading task, which required integrating words across sentence boundaries. The study compared two conditions: repetition and inference. In the repetition condition, a critical word appeared in both context and target sentences, while in the inference condition, the context allowed the inference of the critical word. Vocabulary knowledge was assessed using a standardized receptive vocabulary test. The results showed that adolescents with larger vocabularies exhibited faster reading times across conditions, particularly in the inference condition, where a stronger vocabulary facilitated more efficient word-to-text integration. The interaction between vocabulary and reading condition indicated that a larger vocabulary mitigates the cognitive cost of inference-making, supporting more effective reading comprehension. These findings highlight the role of vocabulary knowledge in reducing the cognitive load associated with inference generation during reading, offering important implications for educational strategies aimed at improving adolescent literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning science requires students to conceptualize complex scientific concepts, discover scientific facts, and share ideas with others. In this process, scientific vocabulary and language of science help students develop their understanding of science. Given the interlink between language and conceptual development, the current study aimed to improve seventh-grade students' scientific vocabulary and communicative interactions using teaching materials designed for the "cell and divisions" subject. Through an embedded mixed research design, the study was conducted with 31 (21 girls, 10 boys) students (aged 13–14 years) drawn from a middle school in the city of Trabzon, Türkiye. A scientific vocabulary test, observation form, and video recordings were used to collect data. The findings showed significant improvements in students' scientific vocabulary and communicative interactions. Future studies should examine the effect of students' scientific vocabulary on communicative development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the effectiveness of using visual representations in teaching the alphabet and whole words to 32 primary-school English as a Foreign Language students (ages 6–7). A one-group pretest-posttest design measured students’ retention levels, while a case study approach evaluated their learning experience. A conceptual test served as the pretest and was readministered two weeks following the 21-week intervention using visual representations to assess retention. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were also conducted. Results indicated a positive effect of visual representations on students’ learning experience and retention. Based on these positive outcomes, systematic incorporation of visual representations into the EFL curriculum for young learners is recommended to enhance retention and student engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores whether middle-school students can exploit explicitly addressed crosslinguistic lexical similarities between German and English to learn vocabulary more efficiently. Across six weeks, 260 Swiss German learners of English as a foreign language (17 classes) completed three vocabulary learning tests (T1, T2 and T3). Additionally, 7 of these 17 classes attended a 90-minute intervention between the first and second test: During a 45-minute introductory lesson students discovered four systematic orthographic correspondence rules (e.g. to as in ship and Schiff), followed by three 15-minute sessions to consolidate their knowledge. The intervention group's improvement in cognate learning was significantly larger in comparison to the control group. The difference was observed across both test modes and all rules introduced. While learners' initial English vocabulary size correlated with their overall performance, it did not affect intervention uptake. This suggests that these younger learners benefitted from form-focused instruction, independent of proficiency and type of correspondence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very few studies have investigated second language (L2) knowledge of word parts. The present study was set to measure L2 recognition of 35 English prefixes and the factors that might predict scores. The form and meaning sections of Sasao and Webb's Word Part Levels Test were administered to 152 Arabic learners of English as a foreign language (EFL), followed by a test of vocabulary breadth, and a short language background questionnaire. The factors we explored in the mixed-effects model analysis were the following: vocabulary breadth, duration of L2 exposure, and type/amount of contact with English in the four modalities. We additionally, explored whether Sasao and Webb's difficulty estimates reflect Arabic EFL learners' knowledge of prefixes. Results showed that vocabulary breadth significantly predicted both form and meaning knowledge of English prefixes. Moreover, weekly hours of reading and communication in English contributed significantly to prefix knowledge. Finally, Webb and Sasao's difficulty estimates predicted scores on both the form and meaning tests and interacted with vocabulary breadth, showing that the most difficult prefixes were challenging regardless of vocabulary breadth. These results are discussed in light of previous research on L2 morphological awareness, highlighting implications for teaching practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted assessment on young L2 learners' vocabulary knowledge, immunity, and resilience, considering parental and teacher support roles. Sixty junior high school students in Afghanistan, aged 13 to 14, participated in the study. They were divided into an experimental group receiving AI-assisted assessment and a control group with traditional instruction. The research employed a pretest–posttest control group design, using teacher-made vocabulary tests validated for reliability and instruments measuring immunity and resilience. The findings revealed that AI-assisted assessment significantly improved vocabulary knowledge and emotional resilience compared to the control group. While parental support showed a positive trend toward vocabulary enhancement, teacher support did not significantly impact the outcomes. The study highlights the potential of AI in language education, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts among educators, parents, materials developers, syllabus designers, and policymakers to maximize the benefits of AI tools. These findings underscore the importance of integrating advanced technologies into educational frameworks to support cognitive and emotional development in learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand others' thoughts and emotions, is crucial for social interaction. However, few longitudinal studies have explored ToM development within different social domains, particularly among rural populations. To address this gap, we conducted a study with 113 preschoolers aged 3–5 years from rural China. We assessed ToM development in different social domains using false belief tasks at three different time points with semester intervals, and we evaluated their performance on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and inhibitory control (IC). Results showed that ToM development trajectories differ across domains, with moral and social‐conventional domains developing earlier than the personal domain. Additionally, while general cognitive skills such as language and IC are associated with ToM development across these domains, they do not significantly predict it. This study enhances our understanding of ToM development by emphasizing the importance of including rural samples in developmental research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis study investigated the effects of a shared reading and guided play vocabulary intervention on the science vocabulary acquisition of children who were at risk for oral language difficulties. Fifty-five children from five preschool programs participated in a 15-day science vocabulary intervention. Children randomly assigned to the treatment group (n = 29) received explicit science vocabulary instruction through shared readings of informational science books and follow-up scientific investigations. Children in the business-as-usual group (n = 26) received typical instruction from their classroom teacher. Vocabulary knowledge was measured at pre- and posttest using two standardized vocabulary assessments and one researcher-developed science vocabulary test. Results of the researcher-developed test showed that the treatment group significantly outperformed the BAU group on explicitly taught science vocabulary words (p < 0.001). No significant differences were found between the two groups on measures of general vocabulary knowledge. Limitations and practical implications of this study are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThe effect of video captions on vocabulary acquisition is a growing topic of interest among L2 researchers. Expanding on this line of inquiry, this study explores how keyword captions enhanced with first language (L1) and second language (L2) glosses (i.e. definitions or brief explanations of unfamiliar words) impact L2 learners’ vocabulary acquisition. This study involved 101 Korean undergraduate students randomly assigned to a baseline (keyword caption only), L1 gloss (keyword caption + L1 gloss), or L2 gloss (keyword caption + L2 gloss) group. The participants viewed a video that corresponded to their group, during which their eye movements were tracked and recorded. Subsequently, the participants completed two vocabulary tests assessing word form and meaning recall. Linear mixed-effects analysis revealed that keyword captions with L1 and L2 glosses resulted in distinct attentional allocation and contributed differently to lexical acquisition. Notably, although the three groups spent similar durations reading the target word forms, the L1 gloss group significantly outperformed the other two groups in word form recall scores. Furthermore, although the L2 gloss group spent three times longer reading L2 glosses compared to the time the L1 gloss group spent reading L1 glosses, the latter had significantly higher scores in the form translation test. These findings have significant implications for L2 pedagogy, particularly regarding the choice between target-language-exclusive or bilingual approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This quasi-experimental study aims to investigate the impact of using digital and print extensive reading on EFL student’s vocabulary growth and reveal student’s attitudes toward digital reading. Methodology: To this end, collected were data using a pre-post vocabulary test and an attitudes’ scale (questionnaire). The study involved 74 students majoring in the English language. The students were divided into two groups, namely Group A (the experimental group) and Group B (the control group). Group A was given digital extensive reading for 8 weeks, while group B was given paper extensive reading. Findings: The results demonstrated that the digital extensive reading method positively impacted the vocabulary growth of EFL students for a variety of reasons. The primary benefit of this method is that learners can access the material from any location and at their own pace. The findings also indicated that EFL university students reflected positive attitudes toward digital reading. Implications: The study suggests that students engaged in extensive digital reading on various devices reduced boredom and tension. Interactive features like animated content and music improved the reading experience. EFL learners appreciated the effectiveness of online extensive reading programs and perceived digital reading as more beneficial than printed reading. Conclusions: The study found that extensive digital reading significantly enhanced EFL students’ vocabulary, with a positive attitude towards digital reading. The results underscore the importance of including digital reading material in reading courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of University of Sharjah Journal for Humanities & Social Sciences is the property of University of Sharjah - Scientific Publishing Unit and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Despite being a popular topic in language testing, cognitive load has not received enough attention in vocabulary test items. The purpose of the current study was to scrutinize the cognitive load and vocabulary test items' differences, examinees' reaction times, and perceived difficulty. To this end, 150 students were selected using cluster/convenience-sampling, and took the Cambridge Placement Test (CPT) and Vocabulary Size Test (VST; Nation & Beglar, 2007). After uploading the vocabulary-size test's items in PsychoPy software, there was a behavioral stage to measure students' reaction times and correct responses. Out of these 150 high school students, a total of 60 (20 from each proficiency level of elementary/intermediate/advanced groups) were selected. In this quantitative study, all 60 students were interviewed to determine their perceived difficulty of the international VST items and their item's difficulty-index. The data were analyzed quantitatively via simple regression and qualitatively through the examination of the students' perceived difficulty. The results and interview findings revealed a significant connection between cognitive load/reaction time, difficulty estimate, and perceived difficulty at intermediate level. In contrast, at elementary and advanced levels, these variables could not predict the cognitive load. The findings can help to test, course, and syllabus designers by educating them on the significance of cognitive load theory so that they can base their exam designs on its premises and alleviate students' increased cognitive-workload. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the influence of using Curriculum-Based Readers Theater (CBRT) on promoting 12 sixth graders' oceanic knowledge and vocabulary learning in an elementary school in Taiwan. Based on the analysis of both quantitative (oceanic knowledge tests and vocabulary knowledge tests) and qualitative data (interviews, videos, and reflections), the study had the following major findings. First, CBRT instruction was effective for improving learners' oceanic knowledge through repeated reading. Second, CBRT was beneficial for learners' receptive ability in recognizing spoken forms of the target vocabulary. Suggestions on effective implementation of CBRT into content areas or issues were provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to explore differences in gesture use during a free recall task among individuals of different ages and different development of conceptual thinking. Sixty-three children (aged 7–14 years) and 30 adults participated in an experiment in which they first witnessed a live staged event and a week later were interviewed about the event and tested using the Word Meaning Structure Test. Results showed that adults used more gesture types and showed higher gesture use frequency than children. Further, we found that word meaning structure and gesture use – specifically metaphoric and iconic gestures – predicted more accurate free recall in children. Our findings suggest that gestures may function differently during varying developmental stages, with gesture use being related to word meaning structure and the benefits of gesture use in free recall being more evident in children than adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study presents an instructional procedure developed in an attempt to enhance incidental learning through graded readers in class, the Multiple Incidental Exposures (MIE) procedure, and compares it to a more common procedure involving reading and doing the exercises, which is referred to as Traditional Explicit Practice (TEP). Participants were 44 Catalan/Spanish students (aged 10–11 years) taking the fifth course of primary education in a school in Catalonia. Participants belonged to two intact classes that were randomly assigned a condition: MIE group (n = 23, n = 15 males, n = 8 females) and the TEP group (n = 21, n = 12 males, n = 9 females). The MIE group was first told the story by their teacher, then read and listened to the graded readers twice (first collectively and later on individually), to be followed by a True/False activity and a jigsaw reading task. The TEP group read and listened to the story collectively once and then performed a series of traditional explicit exercises very similar in format to those included at the end of the graded reader. Participants were administered a vocabulary test, a grammar test and a perception of pronunciation test following a pre- post-test design. A questionnaire on the participants' attitudes was also administered on the post-test. The results show that while the TEP procedure is more effective for grammar learning, the MIE and TEP procedures are equally effective in terms of vocabulary and pronunciation. In terms of enjoyment and perception of learning, both groups showed comparable results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arabic is understudied in second-language research (L2) and lacks rapid and adequate tools for measuring proficiency. Drawing inspiration from LexTALE and its extensions, this study created and validated a quick receptive vocabulary size test to estimate L2 Arabic proficiency. In Experiment 1, the initial version of LexArabic was designed and evaluated with 192 L1 and L2 speakers. Item analysis using point-biserial correlations and item response theory (IRT) was conducted to refine the test, resulting in a final version with 90 items (60 words, 30 nonwords). Experiment 2 assessed LexArabic reliability, validity, and accuracy using a new group of 260 L1 and L2 speakers. The validity of LexArabic was evaluated through objective tasks (a general Arabic proficiency test, L1 to L2 translation task, L2 to L1 translation task) as well as subjective tasks (self-rated proficiency). Results showed that LexArabic demonstrated good reliability (α > 90), validity (correlation with two objective tasks and one subjective task), as well as accuracy (AUC value =.88). The introduction of LexArabic has the potential to facilitate experimental research on both L1 and L2 Arabic speakers and contributes to the development of standardized L2 proficiency assessment across languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research shows that infants of parents who are more likely to engage in socially contingent interactions with them tend to have larger vocabularies. An open question is how social contingency facilitates vocabulary growth. One possibility is that parents who speak in response to their infants more often produce larger amount of language input, which accelerates vocabulary growth. Another possibility is that the simplicity of contingent language input is especially suitable to support early word learning. A third possibility is that more evidence of the communicative nature of language, achieved through frequent contingent responses, helps infants build a link between their own words or vocalizations and others' behaviors. This link may lead to a better understanding of the communicative nature of language and further language advances, including vocabulary growth. To distinguish between these hypotheses, we analyzed the relations between parent–infant interactions when infants were 9 months and their vocabulary size at 12 months, using a naturalistic corpus. Our findings show that the frequency of parents' verbal contingent responses predicts receptive vocabulary size at 12 months and this predictive relation is unlikely to be due to the amount of language input or the simplicity of language within socially contingent interactions. Research Highlights: Infants of parents who respond to their vocalizations more often during the first year of life tend to have larger vocabularies in the second year.It is an open question what drives the predictive relation between parents' responsiveness and infants' vocabulary; we tested three hypotheses that offer competing explanations.More responsive parents might provide (1) more language input, (2) simpler language input, (3) more evidence of the communicative nature of language (via frequent responses).We find support for the third hypothesis; the frequency of parents' responses predicts infants' vocabularies above and beyond the amount and simplicity of language input. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the current research is to explore the impact of cognitive reserve (CR) and disease duration on the cognitive performance in multiple sclerosis patients. The research sample included (40) MS outpatients were recruited, their average age was (32.13), with a standard deviation of 8.41 years, same as females (62.5%). CR was assessed by the vocabulary test and level of education. Cognitive assessment was performed using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - fourth edition (WAIS-IV) as a neuropsychological instrument tool to evaluate Verbal Comprehension Index, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed. The results showed low performance in intelligence among (87.50%) of the sample, and the prevalence of cognitive dysfunction associated with multiple sclerosis was characterized by poor performance on the indicators of working memory and processing speed, as they occupied the highest level of prevalence rates (81.25%), followed by the Perceptual Reasoning Index (75%), then the Verbal Comprehension Index (68.75%). Cognitive impairment (CI) was found in all performance indicators in approximately (43.75%) of patients, and in three indicators in more than a third of patients (37.50%). Furthermore, 12.5% of patients had low performance on at least one or two indicators. Both the total disease duration and the CR factor - specifically measured by level of education - contributed to explaining the score on the Neuropsychological Performance Indicators in MS patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective We describe the development of a new computer adaptive vocabulary test, Mobile Toolbox (MTB) Word Meaning, and validity evidence from 3 studies. Method Word Meaning was designed to be a multiple-choice synonym test optimized for self-administration on a personal smartphone. The items were first calibrated online in a sample of 7,525 participants to create the computer-adaptive test algorithm for the Word Meaning measure within the MTB app. In Study 1, 92 participants self-administered Word Meaning on study-provided smartphones in the lab and were administered external measures by trained examiners. In Study 2, 1,021 participants completed the external measures in the lab and Word Meaning was self-administered remotely on their personal smartphones. In Study 3, 141 participants self-administered Word Meaning remotely twice with a 2-week delay on personal iPhones. Results The final bank included 1363 items. Internal consistency was adequate to good across samples (ρxx = 0.78 to 0.81, p  < .001). Test–retest reliability was good (ICC = 0.65, p  < .001), and the mean theta score was not significantly different upon the second administration. Correlations were moderate to large with measures of similar constructs (ρ = 0.67–0.75, p  < .001) and non-significant with measures of dissimilar constructs. Scores demonstrated small to moderate correlations with age (ρ = 0.35 to 0.45, p  < .001) and education (ρ = 0.26, p  < .001). Conclusion The MTB Word Meaning measure demonstrated evidence of reliability and validity in three samples. Further validation studies in clinical samples are necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores the effects of using the Google Classroom application on the vocabulary development of Iraqi university students pursuing EFL education. Additionally, it sought to explore the attitudes of these learners toward utilising the Google Classroom application. To achieve these objectives, 80 Iraqi EFL learners were selected using a convenient sampling method. They were both boys and girls and demonstrated an upper-intermediate level of ability. Then, the learners were randomly assigned to the control and experiment groups. The experimental group used the Google Classroom platform as an intervention, whereas the control group received no digital intervention during the vocabulary sessions. The vocabulary test was conducted before and after the study as pre-tests and post-tests, respectively. The outcomes of the research investigation demonstrated that the experimental group's use of the Google Classroom application significantly improved the participants' vocabulary learning. Furthermore, the findings showed that the Google Classroom application provides positive attitudes towards language learning. The results of this research offer some pedagogical implications for students, instructors, researchers, and language policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Trabalhos em Lingüística Aplicada is the property of Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Portal de Periodicos Eletronicos Cientificos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Research articles published by the journal eLife are accompanied by short evaluation statements that use phrases from a prescribed vocabulary to evaluate research on 2 dimensions: importance and strength of support. Intuitively, the prescribed phrases appear to be highly synonymous (e.g., important/valuable, compelling/convincing) and the vocabulary's ordinal structure may not be obvious to readers. We conducted an online repeated-measures experiment to gauge whether the phrases were interpreted as intended. We also tested an alternative vocabulary with (in our view) a less ambiguous structure. A total of 301 participants with a doctoral or graduate degree used a 0% to 100% scale to rate the importance and strength of support of hypothetical studies described using phrases from both vocabularies. For the eLife vocabulary, most participants' implied ranking did not match the intended ranking on both the importance (n = 59, 20% matched, 95% confidence interval [15% to 24%]) and strength of support dimensions (n = 45, 15% matched [11% to 20%]). By contrast, for the alternative vocabulary, most participants' implied ranking did match the intended ranking on both the importance (n = 188, 62% matched [57% to 68%]) and strength of support dimensions (n = 201, 67% matched [62% to 72%]). eLife's vocabulary tended to produce less consistent between-person interpretations, though the alternative vocabulary still elicited some overlapping interpretations away from the middle of the scale. We speculate that explicit presentation of a vocabulary's intended ordinal structure could improve interpretation. Overall, these findings suggest that more structured and less ambiguous language can improve communication of research evaluations. Research articles published by eLife are accompanied by statements that use prescribed phrases to evaluate importance and strength of support. This study uses an online repeated-measures experiment to gauge whether the eLife phrases were interpreted as intended, finding that most participants' implied ranking did not match the intended ranking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study revisits the roles of different aspects of phonological vocabulary knowledge in second language (L2) listening. Japanese learners of English (n = 114) completed the TOEIC Listening test and three phonological vocabulary tests assessing (a) ability to recognize the meanings of aural forms (meaning recognition), (b) ability to recall the meanings of aural forms (meaning recall), and (c) ability to spontaneously judge the appropriate use of word meanings in sentential contexts (lexicosemantic judgment task [LJT]). Among the three measures, the LJT best predicted the participants’ ability to access the target words during real‐life L2 listening comprehension of monologues and conversations (measured via TOEIC). Structural equation modeling demonstrated that the LJT was distinct from both meaning recognition and recall and revealed their different associations with listening comprehension scores. In line with the skill acquisition theory, we propose that the LJT reflects automatized knowledge, whereas meaning recognition and recall represent declarative knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vocabulary knowledge plays a pivotal role in academic development, particularly among Grade 1 students. To support students in their academic development, effective assessment instruments in educational settings are crucial. The GraWo (Graz Vocabulary Test) is introduced as a tool designed to evaluate receptive vocabulary in German-speaking countries in print and in digital mode. Objectives: This study aims to investigate mode effects in the GraWo among Grade 1 students, comparing vocabulary gains in digital and print versions. Additionally, it explores the influence of student characteristics, such as gender and language status, and examines item-level differences between the two modes in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of test performance. Design: The research design entails a longitudinal approach, following children (n  =  421) from the beginning to the end of Grade 1, varying the test modes (digital or print) only at second measurement (40% receiving the print version), while at first measurement all children worked with the digital version. Results: Baseline comparisons of test mode groups indicated almost no significant differences. In terms of growth in vocabulary during Grade 1, an ANOVA with repeated measures revealed a main effect for time, indicating increased performance in both groups at second measurement. Moreover, an interaction effect between time and test mode group showed that the print group exhibited higher gains in the vocabulary test compared to the digital group. Further analysis using MNLFA confirmed that the print mode group outperformed the digital group overall and that four items were also individually affected by differences between the digital and print versions. Conclusion: The study emphasizes the need for nuanced investigations into the impact of test mode on student performance and suggests incorporating observational methods to comprehensively understand student interactions with digital and print modes. In acknowledging potential variations in performance, educators and policymakers need to tailor practices to accommodate the demands of hybrid test procedures and to consider the role of digital competence in shaping testing experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined grammatical gender processing in school-aged children with varying levels of cumulative English exposure. Children participated in a visual world paradigm with a four-picture display where they heard a gendered article followed by a target noun and were in the context where all images were the same gender (same gender), where all of the distractor images were the opposite gender than the target noun (different gender), and where all of the distractor images were the opposite gender, but there was a mismatch in the gendered article and target noun pair. We investigated 51 children (aged 5;0– 10;0) who were exposed to Spanish since infancy but varied in their amount of cumulative English exposure. In addition to the visual word paradigm, all children completed an article–noun naming task, a grammaticality judgment task, and standardized vocabulary tests. Parents reported on their child’s cumulative English language exposure and current English language use. To investigate the time course of lexical facilitation effects, looks to the target were analyzed with a cluster-based permutation test. The results revealed that all children used gender in a facilitatory way (during the noun region), and comprehension was significantly inhibited when the article–noun pairing was ungrammatical rather than grammatical. Compared to children with less cumulative English exposure, children with more cumulative English exposure looked at the target noun significantly less often overall, and compared to younger children, older children looked at the target noun significantly more often overall. Additionally, children with lower cumulative English exposure looked at target nouns more in the different-gender condition than the same-gender condition for masculine items more than feminine items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most second language acquisition (SLA) research has documented the processes involved in learning second/foreign languages, with few studies focusing on the durability of attained second language (L2) skills once instructed learners/users are no longer receiving formal instruction. The current study examines the effects of continued exposure and peak instructional attainment on the long‐term evolution of advanced, instructed L2 learners’ skills following a longitudinal mixed‐methods research design. Participants (n = 28) completed an oral proficiency test, an oral interview, and a vocabulary knowledge test at multiple times over an 8‐year period, 6 years of which were postinstruction. Results showed that continued exposure contributes to long‐term retention (and some further development) of oral proficiency and fluency and that peak attainment at the end of formal instruction is also an important variable for some areas of L2 performance. Additionally, even the participants with limited exposure demonstrated little attrition over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]