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This paper reviews the Mesolithic in the northwest Atlantic and inland area of the Iberian Peninsula and it is considered in the overall context of the rest of the Peninsula. The Cantabrian Mountains are the northern boundary of the study area, which excludes the adjoining coastal area. In addition to the geographical, geological and environmental settings, the chronology and human remains are also reviewed, paying special attention to the specific characteristics of each of the main sites. The primary faunal, plant remain, bone and stone industry - including raw material supply, technology and typology - features of the main settlements are also presented. All of the above allow us to discuss the similarities and peculiarities of the Mesolithic of this area in relation to other regions of the Peninsula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of dental morphology has proven useful for reconstructing the biological profiles of ancient populations. In this work, we present the results obtained by analysing dental non-metric traits in many of the most important Mesolithic burial contexts from the Iberian Peninsula. Currently, a substantial debate is underway regarding the relationship between the different geographical areas of the Peninsula and their different chronological moments. This paper is based on a sample consisting of a minimum number of 437 previously unpublished individuals from 11 Mesolithic and Neolithic sites, whose data were compared with Italian Mesolithic and Neolithic samples and posterior Iberian groups. We analysed these data by chi-squared analysis and by calculating the mean measure of divergence biological distance measure. There were no significant differences among the different regional groups from the Iberian Mesolithic. Moreover, the Iberian Mesolithic samples differ significantly from the Italian samples. In addition, although certain Neolithic samples differ from the hunter-gatherer profile, it seems that they received important biological influence from Mesolithic groups from the Iberian Peninsula, which varies with geography, since the farmer groups from the Mediterranean area are the most distinct from the previous hunter-gatherers. Our results suggest a common biological origin for all the Iberian Mesolithic assemblages, which probably originated during the Last Glacial Maximum. In addition, this profile differs from the one observed in Italian coetaneous groups. Finally, similar to the latest aDNA studies, this study suggests that the Neolithization process of the Peninsula was heterogeneous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By combining a multidisciplinary approach and an intensive program of scientific techniques, this paper provides a comprehensive overview of salt production at the Villafáfila lagoons (Zamora, Spain) in prehistoric times. During the Late Chalcolithic and the Early/Middle Bronze Age salt was obtained by boiling brine from salt lagoons. In many parts of western and central Europe at the time the standard procedure for forcing evaporation usually involved the use of crudely fired clay vessels (briquetage) to concentrate brine, and then to mould salt. We suggest that the methods during the final stages of the process differed at Villafáfila, having found evidence of basketry and textiles, which may have been used in the step of crystallization/transport of salt in cake, instead of the small ceramic salt moulds which would be expected in such sites. The role of salt within the socioeconomic setting of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE in Central Iberia is also assessed. It is argued that the production and distribution of salt contributed significantly to the political economy, as elites controlled this activity, supporting the idea that salt was a prestige good that contributed to the accumulation of wealth. There is also evidence of ritual practices in the salt-processing areas, as human burials and animal sacrifices have been documented in the excavated sites. • Archaeological evidence shows the production of salt at the Villafáfila lagoons by the late 3rd millennium BCE, during the Beaker period. • Brackish water was boiled in large ceramic vessels supported by clay or stone pedestals. • Techniques evolved during the Early Bronze Age, when pedestals were replaced by clay-walled kilns. • Absence of genuine briquetage, and of small ceramic pots used as salt moulds. • Possible use of baskets and textiles sacks as moulds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bats are a highly diversified order of mammals found all over the world; however, their population size and distribution are decreasing rapidly in Europe nowadays. The study of ancient bat populations by means of their fossil record is a valuable source of contextual information for modern bat conservation studies. This paper is a comprehensive review of published bat records in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands through Quaternary times, representing the first attempt to update and standardize the knowledge of chiropters in southwestern Europe during this time period. The main goal is to identify changes in bat assemblages that might be correlatable to palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental changes. Our data show that the Quaternary record of bats in the area is fragmentary and strongly dependent on the presence of karstic cavities. Thus, a strong preservation bias towards colonial cave-dwelling bats exists, and species with alternative ecological requirements are under-represented. Nevertheless, this work reveals that most of the bats inhabiting the area today were already present in the region from at least the Middle Pleistocene. Interestingly, we observe a frequent association between certain cave-dwelling bats (i.e., Rhinolophus ferrumequinum , Miniopterus schreibersii , Myotis myotis and M. blythii) that is still observed in many caves today; this reflects a stable ecology that has remained undisturbed despite past climatic changes. Within the well-documented periods at the end of the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, a reduction in some common components of Quaternary assemblages (Rhinolophus species and M. schreibersii) is observed, coinciding with the Late Glacial Maximum and the Northgrippian Neoglacial (a cooling event in the Holocene). Finally, the Balearic record shows interesting palaeobiogeographical characteristics, including some eastern taxa absent in the Iberian Peninsula (Rhinolophus variabilis and R. cf. blasii) as well as an unusual abundance of Rhinolophus hipposideros. • Most extant bats in the Iberian Peninsula were already present there ca. 600 ka. • A strong bias towards colonial, cave bats counting exists within the fossil record. • Three Mediterranean cave bats associate stably despite Quaternary climate shifts. • The Last Glacial Maximum and the Northgrippian Neoglacial events left a mark. • Two oriental taxa and higher reports on Rhinolophus for the Balearic fossil bats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tempo and mode of colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (IP) by Cannabis sativa , its further internal spreading and the potential cultural and environmental factors involved remain unknown. The available continental-wide European meta-analyses using pollen and archeological evidence account for only a few IP sites, insufficient for a sound assessment. This paper presents a nearly comprehensive database of almost 60 IP sites with palynological evidence of Cannabis and analyzes the corresponding spatiotemporal patterns. The first scattered records of this pollen type date from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic (150–12 kyr BP) and would have entered the IP by maritime Mediterranean or terrestrial continental pathways, or both. A first burst of introductions, probably in a cultivated form, would have occurred during the Neolithic (7–5 kyr BP) using similar paths. Human participation in these Neolithic introductions remains unclear but cannot be dismissed. A period of reduced Cannabis arrivals (mostly via maritime pathway) occurred between the Chalcolithic and the Roman Epoch (4.5–2 kyr BP), when the innermost parts of the IP were colonized (Late Bronze). A second, likely anthropogenic, introduction acceleration took place in the Middle Ages (1.5 kyr BP onward) using the Mediterranean and the continental pathways. Maximum cultivation and hemp retting activity was recorded during the Modern Ages (16th-19th centuries), coinciding with the increased demand of hemp fiber to supply the Spanish royal navy for imperial expansion and commerce. A potential link between Cannabis colonization/introduction bursts and climatic warmings has been observed that should be tested with future studies. Regional moisture variations seem to be less influential. Further efforts to enhance and improve the database used in this study are encouraged. The results of this paper should be compared with archeological and historical evidence to clarify the role of human migrations and cultural changes in the historical biogeography of Cannabis in the IP. • Cannabis entered the Iberian Peninsula (IP) as soon as ∼150 kyr BP likely by wild dispersal. • The first burst of introductions occurred in the Neolithic (7–5 kyr BP). • Spreading across the whole IP occurred the Chalcolithic-Roman periods (4.5–2 kyr BP). • An introduction acceleration took place in the Middle Age (1.5 kyr BP onward). • Maximum hemp cultivation/retting occurred in Modern Ages (16th-19th centuries). • Colonization/introduction bursts coincided with warmer climatic phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the archaeobotanical and archaeozoological data of the 6th to 4th millennia cal BC sequence recently documented at Dehesilla Cave, and puts forward an interdisciplinary approach to the significant ecological patterns from this key archaeological site in the Southern Iberian Peninsula throughout the entire Neolithic period. indicate an ecological scenario characterised mainly by oak and wild olive forests, and human populations with agricultural practices and herds of mainly sheep and goats. However, this general panorama must have undergone several remarkable fluctuations. The first Neolithic populations of Dehesilla Cave, dated around the mid-6th millennium cal BC and linked to the Mediterranean impressa pottery complex, do not yet display evidences of agriculture, while all of the subsequent Early Neolithic levels indicate a model of small-scale populations with a mixed economy but still with a greater component of livestock. The second quarter of the 5th millennium cal BC shows a marked accentuation of the monoculture of naked wheats, which could have been related to the transition from an intensive to an extensive farming system. This may have entailed a selective pressure on the environment, leading to a large deforestation spanning the second half of the 5th millennium cal BC and the constitution of relatively open thermo-Mediterranean forests with a physiognomy similar to that of the dehesa. These ecological patterns are discussed within a review of the current state of the art of the use of plant and animal resources by the Neolithic human populations in the southern regions of the Iberian Peninsula. • A multidisciplinary archaeobotanical and archaeozoological approach is carried out. • A key Neolithic site in the Southern Iberian Peninsula is excavated and examined. • The first local Neolithic populations show evidence of livestock without agriculture. • A monoculture based on naked wheats was successful during 4800-4500 cal BC. • Human pressure on ecosystems led to the spread of open thermo-Mediterranean forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of coastal resources has been crucial for human diet and social behaviour evolution has been extensively documented since the Middle Palaeolithic, mainly in the western Mediterranean and southern Africa. In southern Iberia, the mollusc assemblages associated with archaeological sites show a continuous record regardless of palaeoclimatic conditions. Among these, limpets are uninterruptedly abundant from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Bronze age with the giant limpets (Cymbula safiana and Patella ferruginea) being present since MIS6. To assess their distribution, predominance, and cultural significance this paper presents the results from an exhaustive archeozoological survey of the southern Iberian region. A total of 1628 specimens have been analysed, including 425 modern (333 C. safiana and 91 P. ferruginea) and 1203 from 60 archaeological deposits deriving from 36 sites, both coastal and continental. Giant limpets' context also has been described and it has been related with a wide variety of deposits ranging from food refuse accumulations to occupations and burials. Detailed morphological and surface analysis allowed us to determine extraction methods and anthropic transformations. On coastal sites, the giant limpet record starts with Neanderthal populations from the Middle Palaeolithic and continues throughout the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Copper Age. On inland sites, giant limpets appear first in reduced numbers during the Late Neolithic and have been often worked into elliptical contours with polished, rib-free, external shell surfaces. In this study, we focus on the Copper Age, when giant limpet use becomes common, and records include tholoi, dolmens and other funerary contexts. The data indicate that the use of P. ferruginea is associated with Los Millares and El Argar cultures. Giant limpets use declines during the Bronze Age probably due to the major cultural shift that occurred during the Chalcolithic to Bronze transition. The data suggest that giant limpets should be considered as proxies of long-range trade during the Chalcolithic. We propose a new hypothesis linking giant limpets symbology with orbital/tidal variations and the ubiquitous use of marine elements as symbolism during this period. Our study highlights the relevance of shells in the reconstruction of the symbolic evolution of prehistoric cultures, as well as their connections with local ecosystem resources and regional commerce networks. • Ecology, exploitation, and potential symbolism of giant limpets found in archaeological sites in southern Iberia. They include data on modern specimens to strengthen their analysis. Works on molluscs in archaeology generally focus on. • Species used mainly as food or for ornaments. In this work we focus on underrepresented species: the giant limpets and the relationship of the cultures of southern Iberia with this resource. • We believe that the data provided is novel and provides a new vision of archaeomalacology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This synthesis paper offers a comparative perspective on how seven different Mediterranean regions, from Iberia and Morocco to the Levant, have been transformed by human and natural agencies during the past 10 millennia. It draws on a range of data sources: notably (1) archaeological site surveys (n = 32,000) and 14C dates (n = 12,000) as proxies for long-term population change, (2) pollen records as a proxy for past vegetation and land cover (n = 253) and (3) proxies, such as stable isotopes, from lake, cave and marine records as indicators of hydro-climate (n = 47). Where possible, these data sets have been made spatially and temporally congruent in order to examine relationships between them statistically and graphically. Data have been aggregated or averaged for each region/sub-region and put into 200-year time windows. Archaeo-demographic data show a clear increase at the start of Neolithic farming, followed by a series of regionally asynchronous fluctuations in population, prior to a pan-Mediterranean Roman settlement maximum. Pollen data indicate a late-Holocene decline in %Arboreal Pollen in those regions that were initially well wooded, but not in drier regions of the southern/eastern Mediterranean. Overall, the clearest palynological proxy for human land cover change is provided by the OJCV (tree crop) index. The cultivation of these trees in the eastern Mediterranean after 6500 cal. yr BP may have been an adaptive response to mid-Holocene climatic desiccation. These anthropogenic pollen indicators correlate more closely with trends in population than with regional hydro-climatic z scores, implying that they reflect primarily human activities. During the mid Holocene, most Mediterranean landscapes were transformed by a combination of climate and rural land use, but after ~3500 cal. yr BP, human actions became increasingly dominant in determining land cover. During the past 1500 years, the dominant landscape trajectory in the eastern Mediterranean was markedly different to that in the central/western Mediterranean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An 8500-year record of high-resolution pollen, non-pollen palynomorph, microscopic charcoal and selected geochemical data (Ti, Zr and Pb) is presented from an ombrotrophic mire from the Xistral Mountains, Galicia, North-West Iberia. The results suggest that vegetation changes over the last eight millennia are primarily the result of human disturbance, fire and climate change. Climate and fire were the main factors influencing vegetation development during the early to mid-Holocene, including a short-lived decline in forest cover c. 8.2 cal. ka BP. Changes associated with the 4.2 and 2.8 cal. Ka BP events are less well defined. Human impact on vegetation became more pronounced by the late Holocene with major periods of forest disturbance from c. 3.1 cal. ka BP onwards: during the end of Metal Ages, Roman period and culminating in the permanent decline of deciduous forests in the post-Roman period, as agriculture and metallurgy intensified, leading to the creation of a cultural landscape. Climate change appears to become less influential as human activity dominates during the Late Holocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we reconstruct the Holocene paleoenvironmental evolution of the Guadiana Estuary, southwestern Iberian Peninsula. Two previously studied boreholes (CM3 and CM5) were revisited and analyzed in the light of a foraminifera modern analog approach. Cluster analyses define four assemblages with different biocenotic, taphonomic, elevation and distance-to-sea settings, which serve as a baseline for paleoassemblages interpretation. Faunal changes along the sedimentary sequences, together with previous sedimentological and chronological data, redefine the different phases of environmental evolution in the Guadiana Estuary since ca. 13 kyr cal. BP, with special emphasis on the Holocene marine highstand. Estuarine flooding began synchronously in both locations (ca. 9 kyr cal. BP) but manifested differently in each sedimentary sequence. The most seaward borehole records a more evident and longer highstand (ca. 8.8-3.8 kyr cal. BP), characterized by the occurrence of subtidal environments and by the presence of open marine species (Pararotalia cf. spinigera, planktic forms and a significant number of exotic/allochthonous tests), indicating warmer and more marine conditions than today. In the most landward borehole, the highstand is shorter (ca. 8-7.6 kyr cal. BP) and less intense, characterized by the presence of a diverse, mainly autochthonous, open estuary assemblage, dominated by Ammonia aberdoveyensis and Haynesina germanica. At 4.4 kyr cal. BP, during a long deceleration phase of regional sea-level rise, a short but well-defined pulse of marine influence is recorded in CM5, when open estuarine assemblages reappear and replace marsh agglutinated assemblages, suggesting a new submergence phase. This short event is not identified in the previous works carried out in the same area, thus further data are needed to understand whether it is consequent from a global, warming period or whether it resulted only from local and ephemeral forcing effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alpine ecosystems are hotspots of biodiversity despite their cold climates. Here we investigate spatial patterns in the phylogenetic diversity (i.e. the degree of species relatedness) of European alpine floras and quantify the influence of climatic conditions since the late Pleistocene and historical climatic instability in shaping these patterns. We collected species‐pool data for 22 alpine regions in central and southern Europe and calculated phylogenetic diversity within and between regions using two metrics sensitive to terminal branching in the phylogeny. We regressed phylogenetic diversity against macroclimatic variables representing seasonal extremes between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 21 000 years BP) and the present at 1000‐year intervals. We found the lowest phylogenetic diversity in the Carpathians and the central Alps, and the highest in the north‐eastern and southern Iberian Peninsula. Phylogenetic diversity decreased with temperature seasonality and low winter temperature. While the effect of temperature seasonality was relatively constant over time, the influence of winter temperature decreased after the LGM. We also found that phylogenetic diversity decreased with historical climatic instability. Between regions, phylogenetic diversity was mainly explained by current climatic distance rather than geographic distance, suggesting that alpine floras were primarily driven by species sorting along climatic gradients. Our results confirm the role of environmental filtering in shaping the current phylogenetic diversity of alpine floras, resulting in more closely related lineages in regions with relatively cold and unstable climates. We also highlight the importance of explicitly incorporating climatic variation through time to better understand the processes structuring the current biodiversity of alpine floras. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Active periglacial processes are currently marginal in the Iberian Peninsula, spatially limited to the highest mountain ranges. However, a wide variety of periglacial deposits and landforms are distributed in low and mid-altitude environments, which shows evidence of past periods of enhanced periglacial activity. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the present knowledge of past periglacial activity in the Iberian Peninsula. The chronological framework takes four main stages into account: the last glaciation, deglaciation, Holocene and present-day processes. This study focuses on the highest massifs (Pyrenees, Cantabrian Range, NW ranges, Central Range, Iberian Range, Sierra Nevada) as well as other lower elevation environments, namely the central Iberian Meseta. During the last glaciation the periglacial belt extended to much lower altitudes than today, reaching current sea level in the NW corner of the Iberian Peninsula. A wide range of geomorphological landforms and sedimentary records is indicative of very active periglacial processes during that phase, in some cases related to permafrost conditions (i.e., block streams, rock glaciers). Most of the inactive landforms and deposits in low and mid-elevations in Iberia are also related to this phase. The massive deglaciation of the Iberian massifs was caused by a gradual increase in temperatures. The deglaciation phase was only interrupted by a short period with colder conditions (the Younger Dryas) that reactivated periglacial processes in the formerly glaciated cirques of the highest lands, specifically with the widespread development of rock glaciers. During the Holocene, periglacial processes have been only active in the highest ranges, shifting in altitude according to temperature regimes and moisture conditions. The Little Ice Age saw the reactivation of periglacial activity in lower elevations than today. Currently, periglacial processes are only active in elevations exceeding 2500 m in the southern ranges and above 2000–2200 m in the northern massifs, higher in Sierra Nevada, in the south of Iberian Peninsula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we conduct a palynological analysis of a high-resolution Holocene record from Cartagena Bay, southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, to establish paleoenvironmental variability of coastal areas in the western Mediterranean region at a centennial-scale over the last 7300 years. Statistical analysis of four palynozones allows reconstruction of paleotemperature and paleohumidity conditions. Pinus , steppic, xerophilous, and Mediterranean taxa persisted continuously through the record, and only during periods of increased humidity did deciduous and Mediterranean taxa expand (Zones II, subzone IIIb). Cooler and dry conditions favored the development of Cupressaceae and scrubs between 7300 and 7000 yr cal BP. The mid-Holocene (Northgrippian) mesophytic optimum took place between 6800 and 4000 yr cal BP during which time a Mediterranean climate was present and open forest developed, predominantly consisting of Mediterranean taxa and deciduous trees. The gradual rise in aridity in the Meghalayan (4000–1700 yr cal BP) led to Mediterranean forest being replaced by steppic and xerophilous vegetation, a change related mostly to a decrease in summer insolation, with superimposed centennial-scale variability in humidity. In parallel with forest degradation caused by increasing aridity, the record shows marked evidence of human influence since 4000 yr cal BP, which accelerated the progression of open landscapes from the Chalcolithic onwards, this change being especially marked during the Roman period. Significant denudation of the landscape can be attributed to the use of fire, as well as due to agriculture and grazing, with a major contributor being intense metallurgical and mining activity in the area. The Cartagena Bay record reported herein shows centennial-scale oscillations in humidity and temperature that correlate with well-known climatic events during the late Holocene in the western Mediterranean region, synchronous with variability in solar and atmospheric dynamics. The alternation of persistent North Atlantic Oscillation modes is likely to have played a key role in regulating humid–arid periods. • Pollen content allowed the paleoenvironmental reconstruction during the Holocene. • Centennial-scale oscillations in humidity & temperature correlate with climatic events. • The mid-Holocene mesophytic optimum took place between 6800 and 4000 yr cal BP. • Aridity and xerophytization occurred between 4000 and 1700 yr cal BP. • Human influence accelerated the progression of open landscapes since the Chalcolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new high‐resolution pollen records combined with palaeoceanographic proxies from the same samples in deep‐sea cores SHAK06‐5K and MD01‐2444 on the southwestern Iberian Margin, documenting regional vegetation responses to orbital and millennial‐scale climate changes over the last 28 ka. The chronology of these records is based on high‐resolution radiocarbon dates of monospecific samples of the planktonic foraminifera Globigerina bulloides, measured from SHAK06‐5K and MD01‐2444 and aligned using an automated stratigraphical alignment method. Changes in temperate and steppe vegetation during Marine Isotope Stage 2 are closely coupled with sea surface temperature (SST) and global ice‐volume changes. The peak expansion of thermophilous woodland between ~10.1 and 8.4 cal ka bp lags behind the boreal summer insolation maximum by ~2 ka, possibly arising from residual high‐latitude ice‐sheets into the Holocene. Rapid changes in pollen percentages are coeval with abrupt transitions in SSTs, precipitation and winter temperature at the onset and end of Heinrich Stadial 2, the ice‐rafted debris event and end of Heinrich Stadial 1, and the onset of the Younger Dryas, suggesting extrinsically forced southwestern Iberian ecosystem changes by abrupt North Atlantic climate events. In contrast, the abrupt decline in thermophilous elements at ~7.8 cal ka bp indicates an intrinsically mediated abrupt vegetation response to the gradually declining boreal insolation, potentially resulting from the crossing of a seasonality of precipitation threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our aim with this paper is to provide insight into the landscape dynamics of the Cantabrian region (northern Iberian Peninsula) from the Last Glacial Period to the present. We present a multiproxy approach performed in a sedimentary record from La Molina peat bog, located at 484 m a. s. l. in Puente Viesgo, Cantabria (Latitude: 43.26° N; Longitude: 3.97° W), that covers the last c. 17,550 years. Analyses were performed on the organic matter, pollen and sedimentary charcoals, which have been used to characterise the fire regime at a local level. The results revealed a steppe-like formation from the basis of the sequence to the Bølling-Allerød chronozone, when the spread of woody species is detected. The dry and cold conditions of the Younger Dryas caused the decrease of mesophilous taxa until the onset of the Holocene. From that point onwards, a mixed deciduous formation composed of Betula and deciduous Quercus was established in the region. Besides, a series of biomass pulses was detected during the early Holocene, probably linked to intervals of increased rainfall. Fire episodes detected at the 9.3 and the 8.2 ka events created forest openings and probably favoured the establishment of Corylus, most likely also helped by a climate shift. There was a lack of fire activity until the Neolithic, when the fire signal increased probably linked to grazing and agricultural practices and triggered deeper changes in the Cantabrian plant landscape structure. • There is no evidence of pine forests during the last 17.55 cal ka. • A steppe-like formation is revealed until the spread of Betula at 13.7 cal ka BP. • Fires triggered changes in landscape composition during the 9.3 and 8.2 ka events. • The spread of Corylus was likely helped by a climate shift and the fire activity. • Agriculture was accompanied by recurrent fire activity to create forest openings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Palaeoecological evidence indicates that highland pines were dominant in extensive areas of the mountains of Central and Northern Iberia during the first half of the Holocene. However, following several millennia of anthropogenic pressure, their natural ranges are now severely reduced. Although pines have been frequently viewed as first-stage successional species responding positively to human disturbance, some recent palaeobotanical work has proposed fire disturbance and human deforestation as the main drivers of this vegetation turnover. To assess the strength of the evidence for this hypothesis and to identify other possible explanations for this scenario, we review the available information on past vegetation change in the mountains of northern inland Iberia. We have chosen data from several sites that offer good chronological control, including palynological records with microscopic charcoal data and sites with plant macro- and megafossil occurrence. We conclude that although the available long-term data are still fragmentary and that new methods are needed for a better understanding of the ecological history of Iberia, fire events and human activities (probably modulated by climate) have triggered the pine demise at different locations and different temporal scales. In addition, all palaeoxylological, palynological and charcoal results obtained so far are fully compatible with a rapid human-induced ecological change that could have caused a range contraction of highland pines in western Iberia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we illustrate how different internal and external forcings conditioned postglacial vegetation in southern Mediterranean areas. By comparing seven Holocene sequences, we emphasize the role of glacial refugia as postglacial vegetation dispersal centers. We also identify the importance of the system's inertia in the time lags observed for vegetation response to climate change and human pressure. Finally, we explore the cascade of effects triggered by the human-climate interface, specifically the vegetation and the environmental feedbacks implicated in the collapse of the Argaric culture that emerged in arid southeastern Spain about 4,000 years before the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of marked environmental changes took place during the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene, to which the hunter-gatherers adapted by modifying their technology and subsistence practices. In parallel with these changes, territoriality increased and significant transformations in artistic expression occurred. This paper assesses the archaeological record of the Iberian Mediterranean watershed to analyze various aspects. of this adaptive process, which unfolded gradually from the end of the Magdalenian to the beginning of the Neolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integration of a diverse set of data from pollen, wood, macrofossils and dendrochronological studies from the Sierra de Ayllón, a mountainous region in central Spain, enables one of the most complete palaeoecological vegetation reconstructions for almost the whole Holocene on the Iberian Peninsula. Previously, the absence of pollen data for the early Holocene in the eastern part of the Sistema Central mountains had been a gap in the information needed for correctly reconstructing palaeoenvironmental change there. Our pollen study on the Valdojos site finally allows this issue to be resolved. This analysis highlights the crucial role played by pine woodlands throughout the first half of the Holocene in this region. The importance of the pine woods in the region enables us to show the clear difference in vegetation between the western and eastern parts of the Sistema Central mountains for the early to mid Holocene. Moreover, the Fagus pollen found at Valdojos, dating to ca. 7,000–6,600 cal years bp, is the oldest beech record for the central and eastern part of this chain of mountains during the Holocene. This supports the hypothesis of the existence of beech refuges in the Sistema Central for this time span. Furthermore, we used the tree-ring series from the Pinus cf. sylvestris subfossil wood from the Sandria site to extend the previous data from the Sierra de Ayllón to almost the entire Holocene. This tree-ring record is the most complete data set from the Iberian Peninsula and southern Europe and it also provides data on some aspects of the palaeoenvironment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: It is paradoxical that work in question (Rodríguez-Ramírez and Yánez-Camacho, 2008) has started a debate in the scientific community about the values of the reservoir effect used in the 14C dates in the Gulf of Cádiz, since in their Comments Rodríguez-Vidal et al. (2009), Monges Soares (2010-this issue) and Lario et al. (2010-this issue), have not taken into account that these values are in reference to earlier studies (Morales et al., 2008). The new figures suggested by Rodríguez-Vidal et al. (2009) and Monges Soares (2010-this issue) for this part of the Gulf of Cadiz (Soares, 2008) had not been reported when the earlier papers were accepted and published. The values for the reservoir effect applied on the South Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula need to be continually adjusted, due to the new contributions that have been made in recent years as a result of developments of the research being undertaken in this field. Without doubt, in the future, as further progress is made, the values will be even more finely tuned and the present ones will become obsolete, as our understanding of marine and estuarine dynamics in this sector over the last few thousand years is a topic which remains open to new interpretations. The new figures for the reservoir effect are an important contribution in determining more accurately the chronology of events in the Holocene, and they make it necessary to revise the previous studies on marine Holocene formations in the Gulf of Cadiz with 14C dates, owing to the errors that have occurred in this respect. For this reason the Comment should not be aimed at one paper alone, and instead this matter should be reviewed at a regional level. Those of us who are not specialists in the topic welcome these clarifications, which can help shed additional light on the chronological problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a new and well dated record of the Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus), which is the smallest extant terrestrial mammal, and provides a comprehensive review of the fossil record of this species. Three remains were found in the small vertebrate assemblage of the Estrecho Cave (Cuenca, Spain), which dates from 2310–2290 and 2272–2149 years cal BP. The morphometric analysis performed provided unequivocal traits of this species. We analyse this new record of the Etruscan shrew together with a review of its fossil records along the Mediterranean Basin. Because of the scarcity of reliable records of this species, its origin and palaeobiogeographical history remain still unclear. According to available data, the Etruscan shrew populations that colonised Europe were most probably originated in Asia, where it was present at least since the Middle Pleistocene. Its dispersal process across the Mediterranean Basin shows a pattern in which it progressively extended its distribution towards the west from mid-4th millennium BP onwards. This process most certainly involved the accidental translocation of the species by humans across the Mediterranean through navigation routes, resulting in its introduction into most of the large Mediterranean islands, besides the mainland of Europe and North Africa. • The Estrecho Cave provides a reliable record of Suncus etruscus in the Iberian Peninsula. • An exhaustive updated review of the fossil record of the Etruscan shrew is provided. • Dispersal process shows a progressive East-West pattern across the Mediterranean Sea. • Human facilitated translocation is inferred as the main cause involved in the dispersal process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to study the climate and vegetation history in the western Mediterranean, in the Iberian Peninsula, during the middle Holocene through pollen analysis. The origin of the deposits varied from the most xeric to more mesic Mediterranean environments. The timing, extent, and progress of the establishment of the Mediterranean climate have a degree of variability depending on the biogeographical region. Analyses of several pollen sequences reveal climatic transformations in the flora and vegetation between 7000 and 4000 cal. yr BP. Pollen concentrations have been used in some sequences to evaluate the order of magnitude in biomass changes through time. Three main spatial and taxonomic responses could be assumed: (1) in littoral regions, deciduous broadleaf trees were frequently dominant and then replaced by sclerophyllous and evergreen forests; (2) in continental regions and sub-Mediterranean mountains, the dominance of pine throughout the whole Holocene signals a change of less magnitude; and (3) in southeastern semiarid Mediterranean regions, the main changes are reflected by alternation between steppe and shrub communities. The emplacement of the Mediterranean climate is reflected in an aridification process. A temporal first approach of Holocene climatic changes is proposed: a humid phase (12 000—7000 cal. yr BP), a transition phase (7000—5500 cal. yr BP) and an aridification phase (5500 cal. yr BP—Present). According to archaeological data, natural changes in the forests favoured the environments suitable for human settlements, farming and sheepherding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quaternary climatic fluctuations have left contrasting historical footprints on the neutral genetic diversity patterns of existing populations of different tree species. We should expect the demography, and consequently the neutral genetic structure, of taxa less tolerant to particular climatic extremes to be more sensitive to long-term climate fluctuations. We explore this hypothesis here by sampling all six pine species found in the Iberian Peninsula (2464 individuals, 105 populations), using a common set of chloroplast microsatellite markers, and by looking at the association between neutral genetic diversity and species-specific climatic requirements. We found large variation in neutral genetic diversity and structure among Iberian pines, with cold-enduring mountain species ( Pinus uncinata, P. sylvestris and P. nigra) showing substantially greater diversity than thermophilous taxa ( P. pinea and P. halepensis). Within species, we observed a significant positive correlation between population genetic diversity and summer precipitation for some of the mountain pines. The observed pattern is consistent with the hypotheses that: (i) more thermophilous species have been subjected to stronger demographic fluctuations in the past, as a consequence of their maladaptation to recurrent glacial cold stages; and (ii) altitudinal migrations have allowed the maintenance of large effective population sizes and genetic variation in cold-tolerant species, especially in more humid regions. In the light of these results and hypotheses, we discuss some potential genetic consequences of impending climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To reconstruct the historical biogeography of Pinus sylvestris in the Cantabrian Range (Iberian Peninsula) during the Holocene, and to consider the interactions between vegetation dynamics, climate change and the role of man in the present-day distribution of the species. Location The study site is a mire (1300 m a.s.l.) at Vega de Viejos, on a south-facing slope of the western Cantabrian Range, Spain. The region’s present-day landscape is almost treeless, with the exception of some patches of Quercus pyrenaica and a few copses of Salix and Betula along stream banks. Methods Tree macrofossils from Vega de Viejos were studied by transmitted light and dark-field reflection microscopy; strobili were subjected to comparative morphological analyses. Two Pinus macrofossils were dated by conventional 14C methods. Results The taxonomic accuracy achieved in the identification of the macrofossils provided new information regarding the Holocene history of Pinus sylvestris in this territory. Ninety-five cones of this species were identified; in fact, more than 80% of the 36 identified wood remains were of Pinus gr. sylvestris. Radiocarbon dating revealed that the forest to which the fossils belonged was present until at least 2170 ± 50 yr bp– its disappearance was therefore relatively recent. Main conclusions Pinus sylvestris suffered long-term isolation, and after the Würm glacial period tended to migrate towards the east. In western Iberia, a temperate climate and autogenic succession favoured broadleaved taxa at the expense of Pinus. Late Holocene human disturbances may have further accelerated the decline of P. sylvestris; in the Cantabrian Range, only a few stands on southern slopes have persisted until the present day. The history of the capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus), a bird characteristic of pure or mixed Palaeartic coniferous forests, was almost certainly affected by the demise of these forests in this area. Cantabrian capercaillies are the only members of this species that live in purely deciduous forests, perhaps a recent adaptation to the regional extinction of pines. Today’s P. sylvestris and capercaillie populations are now highly fragmented and their future, given the predictions of global climate change, is uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean rear‐edge populations of Betula, located at the southwestern Eurasian margin of the distribution range, represent unique reservoirs of genetic diversity. However, increasing densities of wild ungulates, enhanced dryness, and wildfires threaten their future persistence. A historical perspective on the past responses of these relict populations to changing herbivory, fire occurrence and climatic conditions may contribute to assessing their future responses under comparable scenarios. We have reconstructed vegetation and disturbance (grazing, fire) history in the Cabañeros National Park (central‐southern Spain) using the paleoecological records of two small mires. We particularly focused on the historical range of variation in disturbance regimes, and the dynamics of rear‐edge Betula populations and herbivore densities. Changes in water availability, probably related to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index, and land‐use history have played a crucial role in vegetation shifts. Our data suggest that heathlands (mainly Erica arborea and E. scoparia) and Quercus woodlands dominated during dry phases while Sphagnum bogs and Betula stands expanded during wet periods. Betula populations survived past moderately dry periods but were unable to cope with enhanced land use, particularly increasing livestock raising since ~1,100–900 cal. yr BP (850–1,050 CE), and eventually underwent local extinction. High herbivore densities not only contributed to the Betula demise but also caused the retreat of Sphagnum bogs. Ungulate densities further rose at ~200–100 cal. yr BP (1750–1850 CE) associated with the historically documented intensification of land use around the Ecclesiastical Confiscation. However, herbivory reached truly unprecedented values only during the last decades, following rural depopulation and subsequent promotion of big game hunting. For the first time in temperate and Mediterranean Europe, we have used the abundances of fossil dung fungal spores to assess quantitatively that current high herbivore densities exceed the historical range of variation. In contrast, present fire activity lies within the range of variation of the last millennia, with fires (mainly human‐set) mostly occurring during dry periods. Our paleodata highlight the need of controlling the densities of wild ungulates to preserve ecosystem composition and functioning. We also urge to restore Betula populations in suitable habitats where they mostly disappeared because of excessive human activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]