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Early identification and management of treatment failure on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is crucial in maintaining a sustained response to therapy in HIV infection. However, HIV viral load (VL) and resistance testing, and second-line HAART regimens, are unaffordable to many patients in India, leaving them with limited treatment options. Predictors and reasons for antiretroviral switching, therefore, are likely to differ in settings of varying resources. A one-year, observational study of patients receiving antiretroviral therapy was conducted in a private, non-profit hospital in Bangalore. This paper examines the predictors and consequences of antiretroviral treatment switching in this setting and explores reasons for switching in a subset of patients. Data on demographics, drug regimens, adherence, and physical and psychosocial outcomes were collected quarterly. Tests of VL and CD4 cell counts were performed every six months. One-third of the patients switched therapy during the study period. Baseline predictors of switching included lower CD4 cell counts and more physical symptoms. Contrary to studies in other settings, a high VL did not predict treatment switching, and only a minority of those experiencing drug failure were switched to second-line regimens. Both groups (switchers and non-switchers) improved significantly over time with respect to CD4 counts and psychological well-being, and showed a reduction in physical and depressive symptoms. Any differences between the groups were no longer significant at the end of the study, once we controlled for baseline levels. Clinical, policy, and research implications of these findings are discussed within the context of resource-limited settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Vietnam, ARV access has been scaled up since 2005 in high HIV prevalence areas in order to meet increasing demands for HIV treatment. This paper aims to estimate ARV unmet need and its associated socio-demographic characteristics among HIV-positive women in Haiphong, Vietnam. A cross-sectional study using structured questionnaires and CD4 cell count was conducted with 353 HIV-positive women recruited from groups of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), by snowball technique through member of PLWHA groups and the local AIDS management system (Provincial AIDS Center (PAC)). The percentage of HIV-positive women having an unmet ARV need was estimated to be 40%, particularly high among women who were not registered at PAC. Having an unmet ARV need was associated with not participating in PLWHA groups (OR 6.5; 2.4-17.2) and being younger than 30 years old (OR 2.9; 1.1-7.3). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Obesity is considered as a risk factor for chronic low-grade systemic inflammation. This condition could be reflected in changes in complete blood count (CBC) and the presence of inflammatory markers. Assessment of CBC parameters and their correlation with Th17 cells and C-reactive protein (CRP) concentration in overweight/obese children in comparison to normal weight subjects. Material and methods: Twenty-seven overweight/obese and 15 normal-weight children aged 8-18 years were enrolled in the study. The analysis included anthropometric measurements, CBC, biochemical, and immunological parameters. Th17 cells were identified by flow cytometry and defined as CD3+CD4+CD196+IL-17Aic+. Results: In overweight and obese children there were significantly higher counts of leukocyte (p = 0.04), lymphocyte (p = 0.03), monocyte (p = 0.02), erythrocyte (p < 0.001), and haemoglobin concentration (p = 0.005). In the microscopic smear a lower eosinophil percentage was found in overweight/obese children compared to normal-weight children. Additionally, we detected significant relationships between anthropometric parameters and blood morphology elements, CRP, and Th17 cells in the group of all children, and a statistically significant positive correlation between Th17 frequency and erythrocyte value (p = 0.01, r = 0.38). Moreover, the band cell value in blood smear correlated with Th17 cells (p = 0.03, r = 0.34) and CRP concentration (p = 0.03, r = 0.33) in all children. Conclusions: Obesity affects both white and red blood cell lineages. The finding of significant relationships between pro-inflammatory Th17 lymphocytes, CRP, and immature neutrophils as well as anthropometric markers of obesity may indicate that obesity-induced inflammation is be responsible for these alterations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study describes the incidence, clinical and demographic characteristics, and spectrum of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in youths with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Methods: Retrospective analysis between May 1993 and December 2006 of subjects with renal disease followed in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219/219C multicenter study examining the long-term consequences of perinatal HIV infection. Diagnosis confirmation was made utilizing a questionnaire mailed to research sites. Participants with CKD of other etiology than HIV were excluded. Outcome measures were biopsy-diagnosed CKD and, in the absence of biopsy, HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) using established clinical criteria. Results: Questionnaires on 191 out of 2,102 participants identified 27 cases of CKD: 14 biopsy-diagnosed and 6 clinical cases of HIVAN, and 7 biopsy-diagnosed cases of immune complex-mediated kidney disease (lupus-like nephritis, 3; IgA nephropathy, 2; membranous nephropathy, 2). Incidence rates for CKD associated with HIV in pre-highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (1993-1997) and HAART (1998-2002, 2003-2006) eras were 0.43, 2.84, and 2.79 events per 1,000 person years respectively. In multivariate analysis, black race and viral load ≥100,000 copies/mL (rate ratios 3.28 and 5.05, p ≤ 0.02) were associated with CKD. Conclusions: A variety of immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritides and HIVAN occurs in this population. Black race and uncontrolled viral replication are risk factors for CKD associated with HIV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction We aimed to determine the antibody responses and effect on viral load of the AS03-adjuvanted pandemic H1N1 vaccine in HIV-infected patients. Method A total of 121 HIV-infected patients and 138 healthy subjects were enrolled in a prospective, open-label study. Healthy subjects received one dose and HIV-infected patients two doses of the AS03-adjuvanted split influenza A/09/ H1N1 vaccine ( Pandemrix®; GlaxoSmithKline, Brentford, United Kingdom.) at an interval of 3-4 weeks. The study was extended in 2010/2011 for 66 patients. Geometric mean titres ( GMTs), seroprotection rates (post-vaccination titre ≥1:40) and HIV-1 RNA levels were measured before and 4 weeks after immunization. Results After two immunizations, the seroprotection rate (94.2 vs. 87%, respectively) and GMT (376 vs. 340, respectively) in HIV-infected patients were as high as in healthy subjects after one dose, regardless of CD4 cell count. Four weeks after immunization, HIV RNA was detected in plasma samples from 40 of 68 (58.0%) previously aviraemic patients [median 152 HIV-1 RNA copies/m L; interquartile range ( IQR) 87-509 copies/m L]. Subsequent measures indicated that HIV RNA levels had again declined to <20 copies/m L in most patients (27 of 34; 79.4%). Following (nonadjuvanted) influenza immunization in 2010/2011, HIV RNA levels only slightly increased (median final level 28 copies/m L) in three of 66 (4.5%) previously aviraemic patients, including two of 25 (8%) patients in whom an increase had been elicited by AS03-adjuvanted vaccine the year before. Conclusion Most HIV-infected patients developed seroprotection after two doses of AS03-adjuvanted pandemic vaccine. A transient effect on HIV RNA levels was observed in previously aviraemic patients. A booster dose of the nonadjuvanted influenza vaccine containing the A/09/ H1N1 strain the following year did not reproduce this finding, indicating a non-antigen-specific adjuvant effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Antiretroviral therapy reduces mortality and morbidity in HIV-infected individuals most markedly when initiated early, before advanced immunodeficiency has developed. Late presentation for diagnosis and care remains a significant challenge. To guide public health interventions effectively it is crucial to describe the factors associated with late presentation. Methods Case surveillance data for all individuals newly diagnosed with HIV infection in Germany in the years 2001-2010 and data for the years 1999-2010 from the German Clinical Surveillance of HIV Disease ( ClinSurv) cohort study, a large multicentre observational study, were analysed. Factors associated with late presentation ( CD4 count < 350 cells/ μL or clinical AIDS) were assessed using descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression methods. Results Among 22 925 eligible patients in the national surveillance database, 49.5% were late presenters for HIV diagnosis. Among 6897 treatment-naïve patients in the ClinSurv cohort, 58.1% were late presenters for care. Late presenters for care were older (median 42 vs. 39 years for early presenters), more often heterosexuals from low-prevalence countries (18.1% vs. 15.5%, respectively) and more often migrants (18.2% vs. 9.7%, respectively; all P < 0.005). The probability of late presentation was >65% throughout the observation period in migrants. The probability of late presentation for care clearly decreased in men who have sex with men ( MSM) from 60% in 1999 to 45% in 2010. Conclusions In Germany, the numbers of late presenters for HIV diagnosis and care remain high. The probability of late presentation for HIV diagnosis seems to be particularly high for migrants. These results argue in favour of targeted test promotion rather than opt-out screening. Late presentation for care seems to be an additional problem after HIV diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Early diagnosis of HIV infection is important for the individual and for disease control. A consensus was recently reached among European countries on definitions of timing of presentation for care: 'Late presentation' refers to entering care with a CD4 count <350 cells/μL or an AIDS-defining event, regardless of the CD4 count. Presentation with 'advanced HIV disease' is a subset having a CD4 count <200 cells/μL and also includes all who have an AIDS-defining event regardless of CD4 count. This study examines timing of presentation in New Zealand from 2005 to 2010. Methods Since 2005, information on the initial CD4 cell count has been requested on all people newly diagnosed with HIV infection through antibody testing in New Zealand. Excluded in this analysis were those previously diagnosed overseas or for an immigration medical. Results A CD4 cell count was provided for 606 (80.3%) of the 755 newly diagnosed adults. Overall, 50.0% were 'late presenters' and 32.0% had 'advanced HIV disease'. Compared with men who have sex with men ( MSM), people heterosexually infected were more likely to present late. 'Late presentation' and presentation with 'advanced HIV disease' were significantly more common among older MSM. Māori and Pacific MSM were more likely to present with 'advanced HIV disease'. Compared with European MSM, the age-adjusted relative risks for Māori and Pacific MSM were 2.1 [95% confidence interval ( CI) 1.4-3.2] and 2.5 (95% CI 1.2-5.0), respectively. Conclusions The high proportion of people presenting late reflects inadequate levels of HIV testing. The lower proportion of late presentations among MSM compared with those heterosexually infected may be explained by a higher proportion of recent locally acquired infections together with different testing patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The aim of the study was to compare the yields of newly diagnosed cases of HIV infection and advanced immunodeficiency between individuals attending a mobile HIV counselling and testing (HCT) service as participants in a population-based HIV seroprevalence survey and those accessing the same service as volunteers for routine testing. Methods The study was conducted in a peri-urban township within the Cape Metropolitan Region, South Africa. Survey participants (recruited testers) were randomly selected, visited at home and invited to attend the mobile HCT service. They received 70 South African Rand food vouchers for participating in the survey, but could choose to test anonymously. The yield of HIV diagnoses was compared with that detected in members of the community who voluntarily attended the same HIV testing facility prior to the survey and did not receive incentives (voluntary testers). Results A total of 1813 individuals were included in the analysis (936 recruited and 877 voluntary testers). The prevalence of newly diagnosed HIV infection was 10.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 9.0-13.1%] among recruited testers and 5.0% (3.7-6.7%) among voluntary testers. The prevalence of severe immune deficiency (CD4 count ≤200 cells/μL) among recruited and voluntary testers was 17.8% (10.9-26.7%) and 4.6% (0.0-15.4%), respectively. Linkage to HIV care in recruited testers with CD4 counts ≤350 cells/μL was 78.8%. Conclusion Compared with routine voluntary HCT, selection and invitation in combination with incentives doubled the yield of newly diagnosed HIV infections and increased the yield almost fourfold of individuals needing antiretroviral therapy. This may be an important strategy to increase community-based HIV diagnosis and access to care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the predictive relationship between View of God beliefs and change in CD4-cell and Viral Load (VL) in HIV positive people over an extended period. A diverse sample of HIVseropositive participants ( N = 101) undergoing comprehensive psychological assessment and blood draws over the course of 4 years completed the View of God Inventory with subscales measuring Positive View (benevolent/forgiving) and Negative View of God (harsh/judgmental/punishing). Adjusting for initial disease status, age, gender, ethnicity, education, and antiretroviral medication (at every 6-month visit), a Positive View of God predicted significantly slower disease-progression (better preservation of CD4-cells, better control of VL), whereas a Negative View of God predicted faster disease-progression over 4 years. Effect sizes were greater than those previously demonstrated for psychosocial variables known to predict HIV-disease-progression, such as depression and coping. Results remained significant even after adjusting for church attendance and psychosocial variables (health behaviors, mood, and coping). These results provide good initial evidence that spiritual beliefs may predict health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The aim of the study was to determine whether combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) with high central nervous system penetration-effectiveness (CPE) rank (neurocART) is associated with increased survival benefit compared with non-neurocART. Methods Prospective data were examined for HIV-positive patients in the Asia Pacific HIV Observational Database who had commenced cART. CPE rank was calculated using the 2010 rankings process. NeurocART status was assigned to regimens with a CPE rank of 8 or more. Survival was analysed using Cox proportional hazards models with covariates updated at changes in cART regimen and with deaths up to 90 days after regimen cessation attributed to that regimen. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine the robustness of analysis assumptions. Results Among 5882 patients, 308 deaths occurred. The hazard ratio (HR) for neurocART use was 0.89 ( P=0.35) when data were stratified by cohort and adjusted for age, mode of HIV exposure, hepatitis B virus coinfection, AIDS-defining illness, CD4 count (cells/μL) and regimen count. Sensitivity analyses showed similar nonsignificant results. We also examined a composite endpoint of AIDS-defining illness or death (HR=0.93; P=0.61), baseline regimen as neurocART (HR=0.95; P=0.69), CPE category ( P=0.71) and prior neurocART duration ( P=0.16). No association between CD4 cell count and neurocART use was observed ( P=0.52). Conclusions Our findings do not show a significant overall survival benefit associated with neurocART compared with cART. The potential benefit associated with neurocART in terms of prevention of neurocognitive impairment did not translate into an improvement in overall survival in this population. These findings were limited by the low incidence of associated mortality. Further studies and more extensive data are needed to address these limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the association of once-daily dosing with self-reported adherence among participants of the Ontario Cohort Study who were currently taking ART and who had completed a 90-min interviewer-administered questionnaire. Suboptimal adherence was defined as missing ≥1 dose of ART in the 4 days prior to the interview. Participants ( n = 779) were 85% male, 69% men having sex with men, 67% white, median age 48 years (IQR 42-54), median years of ART 9 (IQR 5-13) and median CD4 count 463 cells/mm (IQR 320-638). Fifteen percent of participants reported suboptimal adherence in the 4 days prior to the interview. In a multivariable logistic regression model, participants on once daily regimens were half as likely to miss a dose during the 4 days prior to the interview. Other independent correlates of suboptimal adherence were younger age, lower positive social interaction and increased frequency of consuming > 6 alcoholic drinks on one occasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has become widely available in China during the past seven years. However, many patients still initiate treatment at very late stages. To understand the distribution of baseline CD4 and factors associated with late antiretroviral therapy (ART) access, the National Free ART Database was retrospectively reviewed and a total of 49,321 HIV/AIDS patients were identified in this study based on the following inclusion criteria: (1) age ≥18; (2) initiated HAART between 1 July, 2006 and 31 December, 2009; (3) have recorded baseline CD4 cell count. This study showed that although both the median and mean baseline CD4 increased consistently over the study period, there were still about 30% of HIV/AIDS patients accessing ART at a very late stage (CD4 ≤ 50 µl) in 2009. Risk factors for late ART access included being male, single, having a short time interval between HIV diagnosis and treatment, and being infected through heterosexual contact. Being infected through injection drug use and homosexual contact were protective. Transmission route and marriage status showed different effects in a gender stratified analysis. A strengthened HIV testing and screening program is the key to improving the accessibility of ART and populations that are vulnerable to sexual transmission of HIV should be the primary target of the program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the results of a study on the frequency of fatigue experienced by adult patients with HIV/AIDS. According to the authors, the high evening fatigue pattern was linked with anxiety and the high morning pattern was linked with anxiety and depression. They add that the pattern of morning fatigue showed minimal fluctuation compared with the evening pattern showing the largest fluctuation. They indicate that the fatigue was linked with anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbance.

Same-sex practices are stigmatized in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Cross-sectional relationships between discrimination, access to and use of health care services, and HIV knowledge among men who have sex with men (MSM) were assessed in Malawi, Namibia, and Botswana. A survey and HIV screening were used to explore these variables and the prevalence of HIV. Overall, 19% of men screened positive for HIV infection. Ninety-three percent knew HIV is transmitted through anal sex with men, however, only 67% had ever received information of how to prevent this transmission. Few (17%) reported ever disclosing same sex practices to a health professional and 19% reported ever being afraid to seek health care. Men reported ever been denied health care services (5%) and 21% had ever been blackmailed because of their sexuality. Strong associations were observed between experiences of discrimination and fear of seeking health care services. Characterizing the relationship between stigma and health care seeking practices and attitudes can inform the development and implementation of HIV interventions for African MSM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Objectives [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Longitudinal Epidemiologic Study to Gain Insight into HIV/AIDS in Children and Youth (LEGACY) study is a prospective, multisite, longitudinal cohort of U.S. HIV-infected youth. This analysis was limited to perinatally HIV-infected youth ( n=197), 13 years and older, with selected variables completely abstracted from HIV diagnosis through 2006. We evaluated relationships between ever having one or more nonsubstance related medically documented psychiatric diagnoses and three risky health behaviors (substance abuse, preadult sexual activity, and treatment adherence problems) recorded between 2001 and 2006. Logistic regression was used for all binary outcomes and participant age was included as a covariate when possible. All 197 participants included in the analysis were prescribed antiretroviral therapy during the study period; 110 (56%) were female, 100 (51%) were black non-Hispanic, and 86 (44%) were Hispanic; mean age at the last visit was 16.8 years, ranging from 13 to 24 years. One hundred forty-six (74%) participants had a history of at least one risky health behavior. There were 108 (55%) participants with at least one medically documented psychiatric diagnosis, 17 (9%) with at least one record of substance abuse, 12 (6%) with documented preadult sexual activity, and 142 (72%) participants with reported adherence problems. In the final model, a history of at least one psychiatric diagnosis was associated with having at least one of the three risky behaviors (odds ratio [OR]=2.33, p=0.015). There is a need for a continued close partnership between HIV specialty care providers and mental health services treating perinatally HIV-infected youth with an added focus on improving treatment adherence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives Bacterial pneumonia still contributes to morbidity/mortality in HIV infection despite effective combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Evaluation of Subcutaneous Interleukin-2 in a Randomized International Trial (ESPRIT), a trial of intermittent recombinant interleukin-2 (rIL-2) with cART vs. cART alone (control arm) in HIV-infected adults with CD4 counts ≥300 cells/mL, offered the opportunity to explore associations between bacterial pneumonia and rIL-2, a cytokine that increases the risk of some bacterial infections. Methods Baseline and time-updated factors associated with first-episode pneumonia on study were analysed using multivariate proportional hazards regression models. Information on smoking/pneumococcal vaccination history was not collected. Results IL-2 cycling was most intense in years 1-2. Over ≈ 7 years, 93 IL-2 [rate 0.67/100 person-years (PY)] and 86 control (rate 0.63/100 PY) patients experienced a pneumonia event [hazard ratio (HR) 1.06; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.79, 1.42; P = 0.68]. Median CD4 counts prior to pneumonia were 570 cells/mL (IL-2 arm) and 463 cells/μL (control arm). Baseline risks for bacterial pneumonia included older age, injecting drug use, detectable HIV viral load (VL) and previous recurrent pneumonia; Asian ethnicity was associated with decreased risk. Higher proximal VL (HR for 1 log10 higher VL 1.28; 95% CI 1.11, 1.47; P < 0.001) was associated with increased risk; higher CD4 count prior to the event (HR per 100 cells/mL higher 0.94; 95% CI 0.89, 1.0; P = 0.04) decreased risk. Compared with controls, the hazard for a pneumonia event was higher if rIL-2 was received o180 days previously (HR 1.66; 95% CI 1.07, 2.60; P = 0.02) vs. ≥180 days previously (HR 0.98; 95% CI 0.70, 1.37; P = 0.9). Compared with the control group, pneumonia risk in the IL-2 arm decreased over time, with HRs of 1.41, 1.71, 1.16, 0.62 and 0.84 in years 1, 2, 3-4, 5-6 and 7, respectively. Conclusions Bacterial pneumonia rates in cART-treated adults with moderate immunodeficiency are high. The mechanism of the association between bacterial pneumonia and recent IL-2 receipt and/or detectable HIV viraemia warrants further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies have chronicled the “epidemiologic synergy” between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). HIV adversely affects the natural history of HSV-2 and results in more frequent and severe HSV-2 reactivation. Few longitudinal studies, however, have examined whether HSV-2 is associated with increased HIV plasma viral loads or decreased CD4 counts. The authors estimated the effect of HSV-2 seropositivity on HIV RNA viral load and on CD4 count over time among 777 HIV-seropositive US women not receiving suppressive HSV-2 therapy in the HIV Epidemiology Research Study (1993–2000). Linear mixed models were used to assess the effect of HSV-2 on log HIV viral load and CD4 count/mm3 prior to widespread initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Coinfection with HSV-2 was not associated with HIV RNA plasma viral loads during study follow-up. There was a statistically significant association between HSV-2 seropositivity and CD4 count over time, but this difference was small and counterintuitive at an increase of 8 cells/mm3 (95% confidence interval: 2, 14) per year among HSV-2-seropositive women compared with HSV-2-seronegative women. These data do not support a clinically meaningful effect of baseline HSV-2 seropositivity on the trajectories of HIV plasma viral loads or CD4 counts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present study examined the chief structural barriers to antiretroviral treatment (ART) adherence from the perspective of health care workers who provide treatment to patients living with HIV and AIDS in South Africa. The main barrier to adherence as identified by participants in the study was the stigma associated with living with HIV, and thus with receiving AIDS treatment. A second barrier was the fact that some patients willfully decide to forgo treatment so that they could retain state disability benefits associated with a low CD4 count. Other barriers included the lack of finances for transport to clinics and food insecurity, especially when medication needed to be taken with food. These barriers to ART adherence are conceptualized in terms of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health services in sub-Saharan Africa are under great pressure to provide adequate clinical care due to the continued HIV epidemic, and nurse-driven models of care are one means to address physician shortages. This case-control study examines the reasons for and correlates of patient referral from nurses to physicians at HIV primary care clinics in South Africa prior to initiating antiretroviral treatment. Ninety-seven HIV-infected cases who required physician consolation and 160 controls who did not require physician consultation (matched on gender, age, and date of clinic visit) were consecutively enrolled at both an urban and rural HIV primary care clinic during a 12-month period beginning in March 2006. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to assess correlates of patient referral to a physician. Cases were more likely to have lower CD4 cell counts and have WHO Stages III and IV disease compared to controls (p<0.05). Predictors of patient referral were a CD4 cell count between 50 and 200 cells/µl (adj OR: 5.27, 95% CI: 2.16-12.88, p<0.0001), a CD4 cell count below 50 cells/µl (adj OR: 3.47, 95% CI: 1.12-10.78, p=0.032), and Stage IV disease (adj OR: 4.58, 95% CI: 1.35-15.60, p=0.015). Additionally, the following ICD-10 clinical diagnoses were associated with patient referral: tuberculosis, aplastic and other anemias, and lower respiratory tract infection (p<0.05). Nurses can provide adequate clinical and diagnostic management for certain clinical conditions to HIV-infected patients. Further studies are needed to examine specifically how HIV healthcare delivery can be scaled-up in resource-limited settings with a high burden of HIV, but with a minimal healthcare infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]