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Abstract Mast cells (MCs) are tissue-resident cells of hematopoietic origin that play an important role in host’s defense mechanism against nematodes. However, excessive activation of these cells contributes to the development of certain allergic diseases. Immunoglobin E (IgE) is one of the well-known molecules that activate MCs. Even in the absence of specific antigens, the binding of highly cytokinergic IgE to FcεRI on MCs prolongs their survival and induces cytokine production without enhancing their degranulation. In the present study, we examined the effects of the members of the interleukin-10 (IL-10) family of cytokines on IgE-mediated MCs functions. The receptors including Il10r1, Il10r2, and Il20r2, but not Il20r1, Il22r1 or Il28r1, were constitutively expressed in mouse bone marrow cell-derived cultured MCs (BMCMCs), suggesting that IL-10 may influence MCs function. Indeed, we found that only IL-10 could influence upon BMCMCs function; IL-10 enhanced prolongation of survival, promoted IL-6 and/or IL-13 production dependently of STAT1 and STAT3, and suppressed tumor necrosis factor production independently of STAT1 and STAT3 on IgE-stimulated BMCMCs. Moreover, the IL-10-mediated enhancement of IL-6 production by IgE-stimulated BMCMCs promotes Th17 cell expansion. These results suggest that IL-10 has a dual role as an anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokine in MCs functions.

“Koji” is one of the most well-known probiotic microorganisms in Japan that contribute to the maintenance of human health. Although the beneficial effects of some probiotics on ulcer healing have been demonstrated, there have been no reports on the wound healing effects of koji to date. In the present study, we investigated the effects of “cha-koji”, green tea leaves fermented with Aspergillus luchuensis, on cutaneous wound healing, using a linear incision wound mouse model. Topical application of autoclave-sterilized cha-koji suspension on the dorsal incision wound area healed the wound significantly faster and, notably, with less scarring than did the green tea or the control distilled water treatment. Further in vitro experiments revealed that the accelerated effects of cha-koji could be attributed to its increased anti-bacterial activity, enhanced epidermal cell proliferation and migration, augmented expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine transforming growth factor-β1, reduced expression of inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 in macrophages, and decreased endoplasmic reticulum stress. In addition, we conducted a skin sensitizing potential test, which revealed that cha-koji had no adverse effects that posed a sensitizing risk. Thus, cha-koji may have a potent therapeutic effect on cutaneous wound healing, opening up a new avenue for its clinical application as a medical aid.

Abstract Background The prognosis for recurrence cases of hormone receptor-positive HER2-negative breast cancer remains poor, and treatment strategies that emphasize quality of life have often been chosen, with few physicians aiming for a cure. Our objective is to assess the validity of such current treatment strategies. Case presentation A 74-year-old Asian woman with multiple lung and liver metastases after local recurrence of breast cancer was treated with two different cyclin-dependent kinases 4/6 inhibitors sequentially in combination with endocrine therapy. Flow cytometric analysis of the patient’s peripheral blood mononuclear cells was also performed to evaluate the host’s immune status. Complete remission was achieved without cytotoxic agents and the patient remains disease free to this day, 6 years after the initial relapse. Additionally, no increase in the population of the immunosenescent T cells with a phenotype of CD8+CD28− was observed in the patient’s peripheral blood mononuclear cells, suggesting that the immune system was well maintained. Conclusions We present this case study to develop new treatment strategies for recurrent breast cancer that is not only bound to misinterpretations of the Hortobagyi algorithm, but also aim for a cure with noncytotoxic agents to maintain the host’s immune system and early detection of recurrence.

Rap1 deficiency in T cells impairs development or maintenance of Rorγt+ Tregs in the colonic lamina propria, leading to an increase in pathogenic Th17 cells and development of spontaneous colitis.

Pressure ulcers (PUs) are increasing with aging worldwide, but there is no effective causal therapy. Although mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) promote cutaneous wound healing, the effects of the conditioned medium (CM) of MSCs on cutaneous PU formation induced by ischemia-reperfusion injury have been poorly investigated. To address this issue, herein, we first established an immortalized stem cell line from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED). This cell line was revealed to have superior characteristics in that it grows infinitely and vigorously, and stably and consistently secretes a variety of cytokines. Using the CM obtained from the immortalized SHED cell line, we investigated the therapeutic potential on a cutaneous ischemia-reperfusion mouse model for PU formation using two magnetic plates. This is the first study to show that CM from immortalized SHEDs exerts therapeutic effects on PU formation by promoting angiogenesis and oxidative stress resistance through vascular endothelial growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor. Thus, the CM of MSCs has potent therapeutic effects, whereas these therapies have not been implemented in human medicine. To try to meet the regulatory requirements for manufacturing and quality control as much as possible, it is necessary to produce CM that is consistently safe and effective. The immortalization of stem cells could be one of the breakthroughs to meet the regulatory requirements and consequently open up a novel avenue to create a novel type of cell-free regenerative medicine, although further investigation into the quality control is warranted.

Abstract Background Intravitreal injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor are commonly used to treat macular diseases, including diabetic macular edema. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor drugs can enter the systemic circulation after intravitreal injections and appear to suppress circulating vascular endothelial growth factor levels. However, whether this can cause any systemic adverse events remains unknown. Case presentation A 70-year-old Japanese man diagnosed with diabetic macular edema in both eyes was treated with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor intravitreal injections. One month after receiving two intravitreal injections of aflibercept 1 week apart for diabetic macular edema in both eyes, he complained of a severe acute headache. The patient was diagnosed with hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage of the occipital lobe based on an elevated blood pressure of 195/108 mmHg and the results of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of his brain. The patient was treated with an intravenous injection of nicardipine hydrochloride to lower his systemic blood pressure. Two days after the stroke, the patient began oral treatment with 80 mg/day telmisartan, which was continued for 3 days, and the telmisartan dose was reduced to 40 mg/day thereafter. His blood pressure promptly dropped to 130/80 mmHg, and his severe headache disappeared. One year after the cerebrovascular stroke, the telmisartan was discontinued because his blood pressure stabilized at a normal level. His plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels were measured via specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay before and after the intravitreal injections of aflibercept. Immediately before the injections, the vascular endothelial growth factor level was 28 pg/ml, but it rapidly fell below the detection limit within 1 week, where it remained for over 2 months. Two days before the cerebral hemorrhage, his plasma vascular endothelial growth factor level was below the detection limit, and 2 months later after the stroke, his plasma vascular endothelial growth factor level recovered to 41 pg/ml. Conclusion This case suggests that hypertension and resultant cerebral hemorrhage can occur in patients with diabetic macular edema when plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels are systemically decreased below the detection limit for a prolonged time after local injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents into the vitreous cavity. Therefore, severely reduced plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels could be a higher risk factor to develop generally infrequent stroke. Ophthalmologists should be aware of possible severe reduction of plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels and resultant increase in blood pressure after intravitreal injections of an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor drug. If the plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels could be monitored more easily and quickly during the treatment, it would help to prevent adverse events.

Abstract Among various cytokines, interleukin (IL)-12 family cytokines have very unique characteristics in that they are composed of two distinct subunits and these subunits are shared with each other. IL-23, one of the IL-12 family cytokines, consists of p19 and p40 subunits, is mainly produced by antigen-presenting cells, and plays a critical role in the expansion and maintenance of pathogenic helper CD4+ T (Th)17 cells. Since we initially found that p19 is secreted in the culture supernatant of activated CD4+ T cells, we have further investigated the role of p19. p19 was revealed to associate with CD5 antigen-like (CD5L), which is a repressor of Th17 pathogenicity and is highly expressed in non-pathogenic Th17 cells, to form a composite p19/CD5L. This p19/CD5L was shown to activate STAT5 and enhance the differentiation into granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-producing CD4+ T cells. Both CD4+ T cell-specific conditional p19-deficient mice and complete CD5L-deficient mice showed significantly alleviated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) with reduced frequency of GM-CSF+CD4+ T cells. During the course of EAE, the serum level of p19/CD5L, but not CD5L, correlated highly with the clinical symptoms. Thus, the composite p19/CD5L is a possible novel heterodimeric cytokine that contributes to EAE development with GM-CSF up-regulation.

Haptens are small molecules that only elicit an immune response when bound to proteins. Haptens initially bind to self-proteins and activate innate immune responses by complex mechanisms via inflammatory cytokines and damage-associated molecular patterns and the subsequent upregulation of costimulatory signals such as cluster of differentiation 86 (CD86) on dendritic cells. Subsequent interactions between CD86 and CD28 on T cells are critically important for properly activating naive T cells and inducing interleukin 2 production, leading to the establishment of adaptive immunity via effector and memory T cells. Accumulating evidence revealed the involvement of haptens in the development of various autoimmune-like diseases such as allergic, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases including allergic contact dermatitis, atopy, asthma, food allergy, inflammatory bowel diseases, hemolytic anemia, liver injury, leukoderma, and even antitumor immunity. Therefore, the development of in vitro testing alternatives to evaluate in advance whether a substance might lead to the development of these diseases is highly desirable. This review summarizes and discusses recent advances in chemical- and drug-induced allergic, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases via haptenation and the possible molecular underlying mechanisms, as well as in vitro testing alternatives to evaluate in advance whether a substance might cause the development of these diseases.

Background: Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) is a water-soluble synthetic polymer with tissue-adhesive properties. When PAA is mixed with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) in water, it forms a water-insoluble precipitate that neither swells nor adheres to tissues. Methods and Results: We developed a novel solid/solution interface complexation method to obtain a water-swellable PAA/PVP complex. First, PAA solution was dried up in a vessel to form a film. The PAA film was then immersed in an aqueous PVP solution to obtain a highly swollen PAA/PVP hydrogel. Heat drying of the hydrogel yielded a transparent film, while freeze-drying the hydrogel provided a soft sponge. Both the PAA/PVP film and sponge could be re-swelled by water to obtain a bioadhesive gel. A relatively larger specific surface area of the sponge than that of the film led to a more rapid swelling and water absorption behavior and quick adhesion to tissues. The addition of hyaluronic acid (HA) improved the mechanical characteristics of the sponges. PAA/PVP/HA sponges had low cytotoxicity, and they exhibited high hemostatic efficiency in clinical studies after dialysis treatment or tooth extraction, even in patients on antithrombotic drugs. Conclusions: Such bioadhesive materials consisting of low-toxicity polymers have a high potential for use in medical hemostatic devices.

The interleukin-6 (IL-6)/IL-12 family of cytokines plays critical roles in the induction and regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Among the various cytokines, only this family has the unique characteristic of being composed of two distinct subunits, α- and β-subunits, which form a heterodimer with subunits that occur in other cytokines as well. Recently, we found a novel intracellular role for one of the α-subunits, Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3), in promoting the proper folding of target proteins and augmenting its expression at the protein level by binding to its target protein and a well-characterized lectin chaperone, calnexin, presumably through enhancing chaperone activity. Because calnexin is ubiquitously and constitutively expressed but EBI3 expression is inducible, these results could open an avenue to establish a new paradigm in which EBI3 plays an important role in further increasing the expression of target molecules at the protein level in collaboration with calnexin under inflammatory conditions. This theory well accounts for the heterodimer formation of EBI3 with p28, and probably with p35 and p19 to produce IL-27, IL-35, and IL-39, respectively. In line with this concept, another β-subunit, p40, plays a critical role in the assembly-induced proper folding of p35 and p19 to produce IL-12 and IL-23, respectively. Thus, chaperone-like activities in proper folding and maturation, which allow the secretion of biologically active heterodimeric cytokines, have recently been highlighted. This review summarizes the current understanding of chaperone-like activities of EBI3 to form heterodimers and other associations together with their possible biological implications.

Summary: A short form of cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein encoded by CFLARs promotes necroptosis. Although necroptosis is involved in various pathological conditions, the detailed mechanisms are not fully understood. Here we generated transgenic mice wherein CFLARs was integrated onto the X chromosome. All male CFLARs Tg mice died perinatally due to severe ileitis. Although necroptosis was observed in various tissues of CFLARs Tg mice, large numbers of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) died by apoptosis. Deletion of Ripk3 or Mlkl, essential genes of necroptosis, prevented both necroptosis and apoptosis, and rescued lethality of CFLARs Tg mice. Type 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) were activated and recruited to the small intestine along with upregulation of interleukin-22 (Il22) in CFLARs Tg mice. Deletion of ILC3s or Il22 rescued lethality of CFLARs Tg mice by preventing apoptosis, but not necroptosis of IECs. Together, necroptosis-dependent activation of ILC3s induces lethal ileitis in an IL-22-dependent manner. : Immunology; Immune Response; Cell Biology; Functional Aspects of Cell Biology Subject Areas: Immunology, Immune Response, Cell Biology, Functional Aspects of Cell Biology

Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) is a water-soluble synthetic polymer that exhibits bioadhesive properties and has been applied in various novel medical devices, such as drug-delivery carriers and hemostatic agents. PAA forms a water-insoluble complex when mixed with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If PAA and PVP are mixed in water, they form an aggregated precipitate, which neither swells nor adheres to tissues. The formation of the hydrophobic complex was caused by hydrophobic interactions between the main chains of both polymers aligned the same as a zipper. To hinder the zipper-like alignment of the polymer main chains, hyaluronic acid (HA), a macromolecular viscous polysaccharide, was added to the PVP solution prior to complex formation. When the initial concentration of PAA was lower than 0.05%, HA effectively prevented the aggregation of PAA/PVP complexes and resulted in a slightly clouded suspension. Freeze-drying of the mixture yielded a soft white sponge, which could immediately swell in water to form a highly bioadhesive hydrogel. The PAA/PVP complex prepared with HA exhibited high hemostatic efficiency in clinical studies, even in patients on antithrombotic drugs.

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), as tumor vaccines, carry tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), and were expected to transfer TAAs to antigen-presenting cells. However, treatment with tumor-derived EVs exhibited no obvious antitumor effect on the established tumors, likely due to their immuno-suppressive functions, and also to the poor immunogenicity of TAAs. In order to improve the immune stimulating properties, EVs expressing a highly immunogenic bacterial antigen, 6 kDa early secretory antigenic target (ESAT-6), from Mycobacterium tuberculosis were prepared by genetically modifying the parent tumor cells with a plasmid coding for ESAT-6. Cultured B16 tumor cells were transfected with a ternary complex system consisting of pDNA, polyethylenimine (PEI), and chondroitin sulfate. The cells that were transfected with the ternary complex secreted EVs with a higher number of ESAT-6 epitopes than those transfected by a conventional DNA/PEI binary complex, due to the low cytotoxicity, and durable high expression efficiency of the ternary complex systems. The EVs presenting the ESAT-6 epitope (ESAT-EV) were collected and explored as immune modulatory agents. Dendritic cells (DCs) were differentiated from mouse bone marrow cells and incubated with ESAT-EV. After incubating with the EVs for one day, the DCs expressed a significantly higher level of DC maturation marker, CD86. The DCs treated with ESAT-EV showed a significantly improved antitumor activity in tumor-bearing mice.

Interleukin (IL)-27 is a multifunctional cytokine that belongs to the IL-6/IL-12 family and has potent antitumor activity through various mechanisms. Our novel findings indicate that IL-27 directly acts on hematopoietic stem cells and promotes their expansion and differentiation into myeloid progenitors to control infection and to eradicate tumors.

The use of animal models in chemical safety testing will be significantly limited due to the recent introduction of the 3Rs principle of animal experimentation in research. Although several in vitro assays to predict the sensitizing potential of chemicals have been developed, these methods cannot distinguish chemical respiratory sensitizers and skin sensitizers. In the present study, we describe a novel in vitro assay that can discriminate respiratory sensitizers from chemical skin sensitizers by taking advantage of the fundamental difference between their modes of action, namely the development of the T helper 2 immune response, which is critically important for respiratory sensitization. First, we established a novel three-dimensional (3D) coculture system of human upper airway epithelium using a commercially available scaffold. It consists of human airway epithelial cell line BEAS-2B, immature dendritic cells (DCs) derived from human peripheral blood CD14+ monocytes, and human lung fibroblast cell line MRC-5. Respective cells were first cultured in individual scaffolds and subsequently assembled into a 3D multi-cell tissue model to more closely mimic the in vivo situation. Then, three typical chemicals that are known respiratory sensitizers (ortho-phthaldialdehyde, hexamethylene diisocyanate, and trimellitic anhydride) and skin sensitizers (oxazolone, formaldehyde, and dinitrochlorobenzene) were added individually to the 3D coculture system. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that DCs do not migrate into other scaffolds under the experimental conditions. Therefore, the 3D structure was disassembled and real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis was performed in individual scaffolds to analyze the expression levels of molecules critical for Th2 differentiation such as OX40 ligand (OX40L), interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-33, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin. Both sensitizers showed similarly augmented expression of DC maturation markers (e.g., CD86), but among these molecules, OX40L expression in DCs was most consistently and significantly enhanced by respiratory sensitizers as compared to that by skin sensitizers. Thus, we have established a 3D coculture system mimicking the airway upper epithelium that may be successfully applied to discriminate chemical respiratory sensitizers from skin sensitizers by measuring the critical molecule for Th2 differentiation, OX40L, in DCs.

The interleukin (IL)-6/IL-12 family cytokines have pleiotropic functions and play critical roles in multiple immune responses. This cytokine family has very unique characteristics in that they are composed of two distinct subunits forming a heterodimer and each cytokine and receptor subunit shares with each other. The members of this cytokine family are increasing; currently, there are more than 6 cytokines, including the tentatively named cytokines IL-Y (p28/p40), IL-12 (p35/p40), IL-23 (p19/p40), IL-27 p28/Epstein-Barr virus-induced protein 3 (EBI3), IL-35 (p35/EBI3), and IL-39 (p19/EBI3). This family of cytokines covers a very broad range of immune responses, including pro-inflammatory responses such as helper T (Th)1, Th2, and Th17 to anti-inflammatory responses such as regulatory T (Treg) cells and IL-10-producing Treg cells. IL-12 is the first member of this family, and IL-12, IL-23, and IL-27 are mainly produced by activated antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages. IL-12 plays a critical role in the promotion of Th1 immune responses by inducing interferon-γ production to combat pathogens and malignant tumors. IL-23 induces IL-17 production and is necessary to maintain pathogenic Th17 cells that cause inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. IL-27 was initially reported to play a critical role in promotion of Th1 differentiation; however, subsequent studies revealed that IL-27 has broader stimulatory and inhibitory roles by inducing IL-10-producing Treg cells. IL-35 is produced by forkhead box P3+ Treg cells and activated B cells and has immunosuppressive functions to maintain immune tolerance. The most recently identified cytokine, IL-39, is produced by activated B cells and has pro-inflammatory functions. The cytokine tentatively named IL-Y seems to have anti-inflammatory functions by inhibiting Th1 and Th17 differentiation. In addition, individual cytokine subunits were also shown to have self-standing activities. Thus, promiscuity within the IL-6/IL-12 family cytokines complicates structural and functional clarification and assignment of individual cytokines. A better understanding of the recent advances and expanding diversity in molecular structures and functions of the IL-6/IL-12 family cytokines could allow the creation of novel therapeutic strategies by using them as tools and targeted molecules.

Emergency myelopoiesis is inflammation-induced hematopoiesis to replenish myeloid cells in the periphery, which is critical to control the infection with pathogens. Previously, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interferon (IFN)-α and IFN-γ were demonstrated to play a critical role in the expansion of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and myeloid progenitors, leading to production of mature myeloid cells, although their inhibitory effects on hematopoiesis were also reported. Therefore, the molecular mechanism of emergency myelopoiesis during infection remains incompletely understood. Here, we clarify that one of the interleukin (IL)-6/IL-12 family cytokines, IL-27, plays an important role in the emergency myelopoiesis. Among various types of hematopoietic cells in bone marrow, IL-27 predominantly and continuously promoted the expansion of only Lineage-Sca-1+c-Kit+ (LSK) cells, especially long-term repopulating HSCs and myeloid-restricted progenitor cells with long-term repopulating activity, and the differentiation into myeloid progenitors in synergy with stem cell factor. These progenitors expressed myeloid transcription factors such as Spi1, Gfi1, and Cebpa/b through activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 and 3, and had enhanced potential to differentiate into migratory dendritic cells (DCs), neutrophils, and mast cells, and less so into macrophages, and basophils, but not into plasmacytoid DCs, conventional DCs, T cells, and B cells. Among various cytokines, IL-27 in synergy with the stem cell factor had the strongest ability to augment the expansion of LSK cells and their differentiation into myeloid progenitors retaining the LSK phenotype over a long period of time. The experiments using mice deficient for one of IL-27 receptor subunits, WSX-1, and IFN-γ revealed that the blood stage of malaria infection enhanced IL-27 expression through IFN-γ production, and the IL-27 then promoted the expansion of LSK cells, differentiating and mobilizing them into spleen, resulting in enhanced production of neutrophils to control the infection. Thus, IL-27 is one of the limited unique cytokines directly acting on HSCs to promote differentiation into myeloid progenitors during emergency myelopoiesis.

The testis is an organ with immune privilege. The comprehensive blood-testis barrier formed by Sertoli cells protects autoimmunogenic spermatozoa and spermatids from attack by the body's immune system. The interleukin (IL)-6/IL-12 family cytokines IL-12 (p35/p40), IL-23 (p19/p40), IL-27 (p28/Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 [EBI3]), and IL-35 (p35/EBI3) play critical roles in the regulation of various immune responses, but their roles in testicular immune privilege are not well understood. In the present study, we investigated whether these cytokines are expressed in the testes and whether they function in the testicular immune privilege by using mice deficient in their subunits. Expression of EBI3 was markedly increased at both mRNA and protein levels in the testes of 10- or 12-week-old wild-type mice as compared with levels in 2-week-old mice, whereas the mRNA expression of p40 was markedly decreased and that of p35 was conserved between these two groups. Lack of EBI3, p35, and IL-12 receptor β2 caused enhanced infiltration of lymphocytes into the testicular interstitium, with increased interferon-γ expression in the testes and autoantibody production against mainly acrosomal regions of spermatids. Spermatogenic disturbance was more frequently observed in the seminiferous tubules, especially when surrounded by infiltrating lymphocytes, of these deficient mice than in those of wild-type mice. In particular, p35-deficient mice showed the most severe spermatogenic disturbance. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that endothelial cells and peritubular cells in the interstitium were highly positive for p35 at both ages, and CD163+ resident macrophages positive for p35 and EBI3, possibly producing IL-35, were also detected in the interstitium of 12-week-old mice but not those of 2-week-old mice. These results suggest that p35 helps in maintaining the testicular immune privilege, in part in an IL-35-dependent manner.

Interleukin (IL)-27 is a member of the IL-6/IL-12 cytokine family and possesses potent antitumor activity, which is mediated by multiple mechanisms. Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 is the critical sensor of the innate immune system that serves to identify viral double-stranded RNA. TLR3 is frequently expressed by various types of malignant cells, and recent studies reported that a synthetic TLR3 agonist, polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)], induces antitumor effects on malignant cells. In the present study, we have explored the effect of IL-27 on human melanomas and uncovered a previously unknown mechanism. We found that IL-27 inhibits in vitro tumor growth of human melanomas and greatly enhances the expression of TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) in a dose-dependent manner. Neutralizing antibody against TRAIL partly but significantly blocked the IL-27-mediated inhibition of tumor growth. In addition, IL-27 and poly(I:C) cooperatively augmented TRAIL expression and inhibited tumor growth. The cooperative effect could be ascribed to the augmented expression of TLR3, but not retinoic acid-inducible gene-I or anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5, by IL-27. The inhibition of tumor growth by the combination was also significantly abrogated by anti-TRAIL neutralizing antibody. Moreover, IL-27 and poly(I:C) cooperatively suppressed in vivo tumor growth of human melanoma in immunodeficient mice. Taken together, these results suggest that IL-27 enhances the expression of TRAIL and TLR3 in human melanomas and inhibits their tumor growth in cooperation with poly(I:C), partly in a TRAIL-dependent manner. Thus, IL-27 and the combination of IL-27 and poly(I:C) may be attractive candidates for cancer immunotherapy.

T-helper 17 (Th17) cells are characterized by producing interleukin-17 (IL-17, also called IL-17A), IL-17F, IL-21, and IL-22 and potentially TNF-α and IL-6 upon certain stimulation. IL-23, which promotes Th17 cell development, as well as IL-17 and IL-22 produced by the Th17 cells plays essential roles in various inflammatory diseases, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, rheumatoid arthritis, colitis, and Concanavalin A-induced hepatitis. In this review, we summarize the characteristics of the functional role of Th17 cells, with particular focus on the Th17 cell-related cytokines such as IL-17, IL-22, and IL-23, in mouse models and human inflammatory diseases.

The interleukin (IL)-12 family, which is composed of heterodimeric cytokines including IL-12, IL-23, and IL-27, is produced by antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells and plays critical roles in the regulation of helper T (Th) cell differentiation. IL-12 induces IFN-𝛾 production by NK and T cells and differentiation to Th1 cells. IL-23 induces IL-17 production by memory T cells and expands and maintains inflammatory Th17 cells. IL-27 induces the early Th1 differentiation and generation of IL-10-producing regulatory T cells. In addition, these cytokines induce distinct immune responses to tumors. IL-12 activates signal transducers and activator of transcription (STAT)4 and enhances antitumor cellular immunity through interferon (IFN)-𝛾 production. IL-27 activates STAT1, as does IFN-𝛾 and STAT3 as well, and enhances antitumor immunity by augmenting cellular and humoral immunities. In contrast, although exogenously overexpressed IL-23 enhances antitumor immunity via memory T cells, endogenous IL-23 promotes protumor immunity through STAT3 activation by inducing inflammatory responses including IL-17 production.