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This commentary uses the papers in this issue to focus on some of the basic research questions in development bureaucracies: What are the range of design requirements for development bureaucracies? What are the best fits between development bureaucracies and their relevant environments? What are the sources of interference within the existing system to development efforts? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that evolutionary processes occur in the environments of organizations. Ideal types of environment, originally conceptualized by Emery and Trist, are elaborated and extended. A review of recent literature gives evidence of the decreasing autonomy and the increasing interdependence of organizations. Four approaches to interorganizational analysis are reviewed and found inadequate to deal with present-day conditions. This paper then outlines a perspective which allows any organization, its transactions, and the environment itself to be viewed in a common conceptual framework. Two hypotheses are discussed: (I) that organizational change is increasingly externally induced; and (2) that organizational adaptability is a function of ability to learn and to perform according to changes in the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts of management literature. They include "Assessing Organization Performance with Behavioral Measurements," by Stanley E. Seashore, "Bureaucrats and Intellectuals: A Critique of C. Wright Mills," and "Cabinet Reform in Britain 1914-1963," by Hans Daalder.

This paper argues that the traditional Weberian concerns about complex organizations require refinement and extension for the understanding of organizations designed for social development. Six ideal type modes of looking at development bureaucracies are proposed: (1) that the organization is theoretically oriented; (2) that the organization is designed to provide latent structures to meet the changing contingencies of the development process; (3) that the organization is client centered and is consequently designed to work with the entire social system(s); (4) that the organization is designed to perform a socialization or resocialization function; (5) that social development organizations are ideally committed to a norm emphasizing experimental design as the primary consideration in program design; (6) and that the organization for social development is constrained by the limited alternatives for change available at any given time. In addition, brief attention is given to the great importance of community disintegration and ego impairment as critical constraints on attempts to repair and/or modernize a social system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has a dual purpose: to build a conceptual approach to authoritative relations in organizations that permits a reasonable interpretation of existing research; and to encourage significant future research. Its focus is upon several concepts common in the study of authority, which are often treated as being more or less mutually exclusive but which may also be usefully considered as interacting overlays of authoritative relations. Thus, in this paper authoritative relations are conceived as "integrative," that is, as having "traditional," "functional," and "behavioral" component overlays. In the application of the integrative conceptual approach illustrated here, the crucial issue is the increase of the congruence of the several overlays so that they substantially reinforce one another. The relevant literature is sampled, both to illustrate applied techniques and to sketch an organization structure appropriate for increasing the congruence of the several overlays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes that crisis can be denoted with a specific meaning applicable to organizational behavior. A tentative series of interrelated propositions suggests how a crisis in an organization's external environment can activate behavior within the organization which hinders its response to the crisis. The propositions are illustrated with material from a range of political and nonpolitical studies. Some attention is directed to possible means of making the eight principal variables operational. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utilizing data from a study of the participation of private experts in the conduct of United States foreign affairs, this paper analyzes the behavior of outside experts. This is done by placing this behavior in the context of other relationships between bureaucracies and their social environment, and identifying the persons involved as external bureaucrats; by examining the roles of these external bureaucrats as a special case of multiple affiliations; by suggesting that their basic functions are the communication of information and perspectives from the environment to the bureaucracy and vice versa, providing an image of the participation of nongovernmental persons in governmental affairs, and supplying manpower to the bureaucracy that is not needed full time or that cannot be obtained through usual employment procedures; by analyzing the role of external bureaucrats in interorganizational relations; and by developing propositions as a stimulus and guide for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an operational framework to understand autonomy by examining the relationship between the enterprise and its supporting environment. This relationship between the public enterprise and the enabling system is seen as one of power-dependency, by adopting the interorganizational analysis approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The explanation of organizational structure has always been an important issue to administrative theorists. This paper investigates the structure of manufacturing operations and therefore starts from the premise that technological factors are most crucial. One current approach to structure and technology, comparative analysis, has studied the overall context but at a highly aggregative level. The "constituent" approach, on the other hand, has investigated intraorganizational relationships but at the expense of empirically verifiable theory. We develop a heuristic computer model capable of testing existing constituent theories. The model uses work flow data as technological inputs and produces a structural configuration as output. It employs administrative rules (based on Thompson's propositions for structuring the technical core) to convert inputs into outputs. The inputs, outputs, and rules are formally represented using list processing concepts. Operationalizing the formal concepts has been satisfactorily explored in a pilot study of a small manufacturing firm. Testing existing constituent theory is just the initial phase of this project. It is possible to develop new structural theory for the technical core and the rest of the organization, and to engage in a form of comparative analysis to judge the effects of varying contexts. Moreover, the fact that a structural configuration is produced implies utility in the area of design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a discussion about developmental and operational functions of the international agency. It offers several pages from the six working papers prepared by the Control Committee of the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. It gives the detailed elaboration of a control plan. However, the Russian representatives assumed the role of interested observers rather than partners in the work. The papers are the product of collective thinking in which the Russians have participated unwillingly and without attempting to influence specific conclusions.

The paper argues that the von Neumann-Morgenstern definition of stable sets is unsatisfactory because it neglects the destabilizing effect of indirect dominance relations. This argument is supported both by heuristic considerations and by construction of a bargaining game B (G), formalizing the bargaining process by which the players agree on their payoffs from an n-person cooperative game G. (G itself is assumed to be given in characteristic-function form allowing side payments.) The strategies ρ[sub i] the players use in this bargaining game will determine which payoff vectors x will be stationary, i.e., will have the property that, should such a payoff vector x be proposed to the players, all further bargaining will stop and x will be accepted as the outcome of the game. It will be suggested that a stable set should be defined as the set V of all stationary payoff vectors x, on the assumption that the players' bargaining strategies ρ, will form a canonical equilibrium point ρ in the bargaining game B(G). In a certain class of games, to be called absolutely stable games, indirect dominance relations turn out to be irrelevant, and in these games the suggested definition for stable sets is equivalent to the von Neumann-Morgenstern definition. But in general this is not the case. However, if we assume that the players will adopt bargaining strategies deliberately discouraging any use of indirect dominance relations, then, in every game, the stable sets our model yields will always be von Neumann-Morgenstern stable sets. At the end of the paper, we briefly discuss a possible modification in the suggested definition for stable sets, based on a modified bargaining game B[sup 0](G), in which the players are permitted to accept cuts in their provisional payoffs if they think that this move will increase their final payoffs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the factors which induce a shift of transactions from market to internal organization and, within internal organization, to explain the types of hierarchical relations that predictably emerge. It is generally acknowledged that a prima facie case for the development of nonmarket forms of economic organization can be said to exist whenever the market, if used to complete a set of transactions, experiences frictions. The discussion of internal organization in this paper deals with only elementary forms of hierarchy and relatively simple types of adaptive behavior. The management of a complex firm, however, must deal with such issues as the redeployment of internal resources in response to environmental disturbances in kind, strategic planning, including innovation, and preserving intrafirm atmosphere as firm size is scaled up. In addition, the eventual limits of complex hierarchies need to be assessed. While these matters are beyond the scope of this paper, the contention is that the interesting problems or organization in complex hierarchies are likewise to be understood in terms of the framework that was proposed is surely, at this stage, unsurprising.

The article presents authors' comments on various papers related to anti-trust policies in the U.S. by economists B.A. Adelman, Almarin Phillips and Donald Dewey. Adelman's paper is said to be concerned with correct definition of monopoly and market power and with consistent distinctions among the various kinds of integration that mergers produce. He points that without such definitions and distinctions, policy operates in an atmosphere of chaos. The papers by Phillips and Dewey offer more revolutionary doctrines along with their policy recommendations. Phillips recognizes that price and output in an oligopolistic market may differ quite widely from the results of pure monopoly, depending on the looseness of its structure, and restates this as an attribute of inter-firm organization. The boundary at the other end of the spectrum between excessively competitive and ordinarily competitive industries is however, unclear. Dewey's view of the function and purpose of cartels says that any known cartel has neither actually made any appreciable contribution to greater technical efficiency nor, certainly, has any such efficiency been reflected in cartel prices. The dominant motive in cartel formation is equity. The article does not agree with this theory.

This paper presents an empirical analysis and conceptual extension of the work of Aiken and Hage. This work was accomplished by (1) constructing a causal model of organizational determinants of interorganizational relationships from an integration of two of their published sets of propositions; (2) testing symmetrical and asymmetrical versions of the model through analyses of data collected from 138 health and welfare organizations; (3) revising the model for theoretically inconsistent findings. The revised model of eight independent variables accounts for about 1/3 of the variance in interorganizational relations and calls into question several classical assumptions of organizational theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A model for explaining structural variations between work units within the complex organization is presented. Based upon an analysis of the impact of task difficulty and task variability on intraorganizational structure, a taxonomy of alternative work-unit structures is derived. The taxonomy suggests that work units within a complex organization can be classified into three basic structural modes (1) a systematized mode, (2) a service mode, and (3) a group mode; with variations in each mode. However, the structural distinction between modes is one of kind or "type," while the distinctions within modes is one of degree. Data on 120 work units within a large government employment-security agency are presented. Empirical support was found for the taxonomy. The work units sampled at six different levels of structure did discriminate empirically on the bases of task difficulty and variability using a fixed effects model, and were shown to fit in different cells of the taxonomy as predicted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the concept of organizational climate and examines the relationships to be expected between different aspects of climate and various dimensions of organizational structure and context. The suggested relationships are examined using data from 387 respondents working at all levels in 14 different work organizations. Examination of the effect of hierarchical level on perceptions of organizational climate showed significant variations by level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organization theorists have faced many difficulties in conceptualizing organizational goals and understanding organizational behavior through them. This paper suggests that commitment to a goal paradigm has retarded analysis by requiring the disassociation of conceptual scheme from incompatible empirical findings on organizations. Barnard's incentive system analysis is seen as providing the foundations of a counter paradigm, and suggestions are made for its development along the lines indicated by his statement "the individual is the basic strategic factor in organization." Organizations are not viewed as analytically distinctive social units given meaning by their goals, but as arbitrary focuses of interest, marketplaces whose structures and processes are the outcomes of the complex accommodations made by actors exchanging a variety of incentives and pursuing a diversity of goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores faculty interchanges among 79 graduate schools of business as a form of interorganizational relation. Faculty interchange among schools, the dependent variable, is operationalized in terms of 5 measures, and 11 structural variables are identified as the independent variables. Cluster analysis of a faculty interchange matrix yields six supply and six receipt clusters which are analyzed with the aid of the independent variables. Inbreeding is positively correlated with the tendency toward top-heaviness in faculty rank structure; and 4 other measures of faculty interchange-number of faculty members supplied, number of faculty members supplied as well as received, number of schools interacted with, and number of schools with reciprocal faculty interchanges-are highly correlated with faculty size, growth in faculty size, school prestige, and output of Ph.D.'s. The finding that faculty recruitment tends to be guided by structural similarity rather than by structural complementarity, raises some questions about the functionality of current recruitment practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a laboratory experiment in which a business game was played by groups of volunteer participants. The game was subject to two treatments, one altering the degree of interdependence between game participants, the other altering how it was played. The game was designed to simulate a decision-making organization, consisting of subunits with minimal or extensive interdependence, with or without defined criteria to achieve organizational control. The hypothesis that the approach to organizational control was dependent upon the degree of subunit interdependence was supported. More specifically, defined criteria were found to be appropriate only when there was minimal interdependence but inappropriate when there was extensive interdependence. Further, the evidence suggested that the view points and orientations of the participants were consistent with those required by the state of organizational interdependence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper replies to Hummon's criticism of the Carzo-Yanouzas experiment. Justification is presented for the use of a split-plot repeated measures design, and tests for homogeneity support the use of this design. Variables which Hummon considered to be not under control are explained as attributes of structure or as variables having inconsequential effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on several of the general problems in the theory of organizations. One of the general problems focused in the article is questioning the extent to which the classical Weberian model of bureaucracy is appropriate for understanding the large variety of forms of organization in societies in general and in developing societies in particular. The article also examines the degree to which organizations were built according to the Weberian model and whether these organizations were conductive in bringing about developmental change, modernization or development.

This theory is based on the idea that both bureaucratic and community primary groups are essential for achieving most tasks in our society. At the same time they have antithetical atmospheres. Therefore, they are best linked when they are at some midpoint of social distance. If they are too close, there will be conflicts because of their atmospheres. If they are too far, they will not be able to coordinate to solve their mutual problems. The paper suggests eight possible mechanisms of coordination which can link bureaucratic organizations with primary groups. It suggests the theoretical bases for determining which of these mechanisms tends to close social distance and which tends to open distance. It further suggests what kinds of bureaucratic structures can tolerate each type of coordinating mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past several years, many psychiatric establishments have come to express an ideology often referred to as the "therapeutic milieu." While the distinctions between such a credo and an ethic of "custody" are well understood, the differences between the two types of arrangements in terms of organizational structure are less clear. In general, however, the former tends to take the shape of a bureaucracy, while the latter more closely approximates a diffuse and flattened authority system. Such a trend appears to be related to changing relationships between hospitals and the larger community as well as to increased autonomy on the part of the clients such institutions serve. Within the debureaucratized milieu, however, important processes of change seem to take place which importantly affect the content and functions of communication channels, the processes of decision making with respect both to clinical and administrative matters, the attitudes that staff have toward themselves and toward patients, the strategies which staff employ to articulate appropriate conduct for the clients, and the meaning of the institution for both patients and staff. This paper attempts to describe the historical forces shaping recent innovations in hospital administration, to set forth the organizational features of the "therapeutic milieu," and to trace the interpersonal consequences of the debureaucratized establishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a detailed discussion of a paper prepared by Francois de Rose of France, General Andrew G. L. McNaughton of Canada, Sir George Thomson of Great Britain, Professor Ignace Zlotowski of Poland, George H. Briggs of Australia, Edmundo de Holte Castello of Colombia, and R. Gordon Arneson of the United States, regarding the international agency's limitations and rights relating to inspections, explorations and surveys. It explains that the First Report of the Atomic Energy Commission determined that although the agency's powers of inspection would need to be very wide they should not be unlimited.

This paper discusses interorganizational linking mechanisms forming part of the micro-structure of government- industry contracting efforts. It analyzes models of buyer-seller relations under the uncertainties and cross-organizational interactions manifest in research and development. Alternative adaptations of project managerial modes are delineated and a tendency for project management to evolve toward "shared leadership" forms is posited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents relationships between three types of competition and their aggregate measure, and four dimensions of top management control, for 96 manufacturing firms in diverse American industries. The data suggest that overall competition positively affects control, and that of the three competitions, product competition alone has a significant positive influence on all four management control variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes, analyzes, and classifies methodologies that have been employed in developing certain management and organization theories. The authors also examine the effects of methodology and value systems on the construction, evaluation, and utilization of theories for management and organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author's comments on the role of marketing research in top management decisions are based on his association with six companies (and continuing contact with many more) spanning manufacturing, consulting, and advertising. Some of these observations on the diverse marketing research-top management interface in decision making were presented to the Chicago Chapter of the American Marketing Association. The Chapter conferred a Merit Award on the earlier presentation during its 1968 competition for papers advancing the science of marketing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to improve the conceptualization and measure-merit of interorganizational fields and organization-environment relations. Cohesiveness of interorganizational fields and centrality of organizations vis-à-vis other units in their task environments are examined. Matrix algebra and sociograms are used to analyze data collected through interviews with the top administrator in 159 community development organizations. Cohesion of 16 interorganizational fields (counties) and centrality of 15 different types of organizations were determined using both high and low intensity of interaction measures. Three organizational coalitions were located and found to group around concerns about agriculture, social services, and natural environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the intraorganizational mobility interests of production workers in manufacturing organizations. Substantial numbers of workers report not only being interested in mobility within their organizations, but many also claim to be actively pursuing that objective. The immediate supervisor is found to be a central figure in their goal achievement plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contradiction to much of the theoretical literature on the community organization field, this paper assumes that the practitioner is not a free agent but is bound by the goals and structure of the employing agency. An attempt Is made to sort out the variety of agencies in the field by analyzing them as miniature polities. Focus is on organizational constitutions and goals, the limitations on agencies Imposed by their constituencies, dilemmas of agency target relations, and the foreign or external relations among agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey of the social landscape of any large metropolitan area will reveal a wide variety of groups commonly known as community organizations. These associations function as para-potitical organizations in the sense that they seek to initiate, influence, or control public policy. This para-political style of involvement has been part of our American pattern of government. Churches, along with many other institutions, have participated in this process, supporting various kinds of organized efforts to influence public policy. Attention has been directed to community organization in recent years for a number of reasons, two of which are readily identifiable: the black community is becoming organized; the style of many organizations discloses a crisis in the city. This research is concerned with black neighborhood organizations. The central point of this paper is that the general theory of public authority provides a helpful framework for research on community organization, for an evaluation of community organization, and for policy recommendations regarding involvement in community organization. The attainment of a more adequate expression of public authority is the imperative, which can guide policy in a general way.

This study reformulates and measures variables defining bureaucracy and presents a multidimensional method for classifying bureaucratic patterns. The empirical data were collected in 30 industrial plants. The Guttman-Lingoes multidimensional scab gram analysis-I program was employed for establishing the typology, and six bureaucratic types have been identified: rudimentary, interpersonal, emergent, balanced, technical, and managerial. No claim is made for the exhaustiveness of the typology, but only for the usefulness of the approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The viewpoints and findings of seven empirical studies of conflict within and between organizations are compared and contrasted. A distinction is made between frictional conflict within a stable organization structure and strategic conflict aimed at changing the organization structure. The importance of attitudes as causes and effects of conflict is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the concept "series of decisions" is introduced and defined as the total number of decisions made in the attainment of a goal. The series are analytically divided into two types of decisions, programming and implementation-the first ones are those made during the process of converting policy goals into programs, and the second, those made during the implementation of the programs. The distinction is important because different actors and institutions are involved in the two phases. It is hypothesized that the relation between the time of programming decisions and the time of implementation of decisions tends to be zero the less effective and the less numerous the organizations participating in the programming phase. A list of factors which could be useful in the process of testing and modifying the hypothesis is presented. The division of health environment of the health ministry of Colombia is used to exemplify the concept of "series of decisions," and to show the utility of the analytical distinction between programming and implementation decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports findings an patterns of variation in the persuasive appeals which clients of a classically bureaucratic organization used to influence officials to grant their requests. Persuasive appeals were chosen as the focus of the study on the hunch that they would be projective of clients' orientations to bureaucracy. Data were collected in a content-analyst of letters to the head office of the Israel Customs authorities. Appeals to impersonal norms were seen as indexing a universalistic orientation to the Customs, while appeals to the altruism of Customs officials indicated a particularistic orientation. The effects on choke of appeals of both sociocultural characteristics of clients and of situational constraints were investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the relationships between organizational interdependence, specifically the number of joint programs, and internal organizational behavior, for health and welfare organizations. A model of organizational interdependence produces five hypotheses about organization; which are tested with data for sixteen social welfare and health organizations located in a midwestern metropolis in 1967. It was found that organizations with many joint programs tend to be more complex, more innovative, have more active internal communications channels, and somewhat more decentralized decision-making structures. No relationship was found between number of joint programs and degree of formalization. It is posited that, with increase in division of labor, organizations become more complex and more innovative; the need for resources to support such innovations Promotes interdependent relations with organizations, and the greater integration of the organizations in a community structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a realistic Markovian model of hierarchies is considered which reveals that under suitable conditions The Peter Principle applies. That is, above a certain critical hierarchical level, performance decreases slowly, but steadily, with increasing level. This can be true even if there is effective screening and promotion is by merit, rather than seniority. Screening procedures which are uniform, realistic and selective can actually decrease relative performance after promotion. Criteria for the manifestation of this phenomenon will be presented. Basically, it is more likely to manifest itself in bureaucracies having low internal mobility and appears when people who are passed over for promotion improve more with another year's experience than those promoted to new jobs which are unfamiliar and more challenging. Mathematically, the controlling parameter is the ratio of two eigenvalues, each the largest eigenvalue of a 3 x 3 matrix. These eigenvalues are respectively those of two transition matrices, one describing reclassification of successful candidates after promotion, and the other, the reclassification of unsuccessful candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's comments on the research paper of sociologist A. Etzioni. The author examines the adequacy of Etzioni's analysis by considering it in relation to the study of innovation in a religious organisation. Etzioni's argument implies that, since an organisation is primarily a means to an end, in distinguishing between organisations primacy should be given to distinctions between the means employed rather than to distinctions between the ends to be achieved. In all three types of organisation defined by Etzioni namely normative, utilitarian and coercive, some attempt is usually made to legitimise the exercise of power in terms of a description of the world, such as to permit inferences from that description as to the rightness of both the organisational goals and the means used to achieve them. Etzioni omits the place of legitimising systems of belief in organisational structure as an element in his typology, and this omission is closely related to his failure to discuss the relation of his different types of organisation to their conditions of action. Although he devotes a chapter to considering compliance and organisational environment, Etzioni uses this term to imply structural setting rather than conditions of goal achievement.

The present paper describes the derivation of an "individual differences" measure from organizational theory. It is concerned with the postulation of a personality construct based on a particular organizational model and the development of a measure of this construct. Data bearing on the validity of this measure are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is proposed in this paper to examine the role of the prison welfare officer with particular emphasis on the clash between the competing belief systems of "casework" and "custody." There is a vast and growing literature devoted to role theory. Its attraction for sociologists is that it offers a way of describing individual behaviour which does not rely on biological or psychological theories of motivation. The relationships of complex organizations to their wider environment have been relatively unexplored. In the case of prisons powerful and contradictory emotions cloud the attitudes held by large groups in society. Imprisonment is an historically recent way of disposing of convicted offenders. It remains the stated function of the circuit judge to "deliver the goals" rather than to fill them and in a more vigorous era this deliverance implied simple alternatives. If proved innocent the offender was released; if guilty he was shamed or tortured, maimed, transported or killed. The over-riding aim was retaliation by society on behalf of the offended person. A new philosophy emerged which defined the offence as an act of will, assumed rationality in the offender and provided opportunities for reflection and expiation. Solitary confinement material deprivation and hard work were the chosen instruments of this policy.

All groups face problems of self-maintenance and task achievement. This paper presents the technique of nonverbal exercises (borrowed from sensitivity training) and discusses how such exercises can help groups deal with these problems. Also presented are case examples that demonstrate the application of the exercises to community organization and group work practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social work during its evolution as a profession, has developed or used numerous working concepts, among them that expressed by the terms "representativeness," "representation," and "the representative." This concept figures prominently in a particular area of social work practice, namely, community organization work. This paper attempts to delineate the various ways in which the concept is applied in practice and to examine some of the resultant implications. Two distinctly different concepts emanate from the adjective "representative" or the noun "representativeness." The first of these is a socio political idea and refers to the authorized functioning or acting by one person in behalf of another or others. The second comes from a statistical frame of reference and has to do with the quality of being typical or typifying a group or class. Both, found in social work practice, need clarification. The socio-political definition of "representativeness" can be readily demonstrated in the community organization activities in social work. It is most clearly revealed in the role of the professional worker providing the agency service to clientele. In community organization, the worker may be the staff member of such agencies as a community welfare council, a sectarian planning federation, a neighborhood council, or a health education agency.

This paper represents an extension to the search for methods more appropriate to exploration and testing of sociological propositions about organizations. This search has focused recently on the use of simulated organizations in laboratory experiments. Based on their experiences with a unique laboratory experiment on organization, the authors suggest that the advantages which normally accrue to experimentation cannot be generalized easily to experimentation with the miniature replica model of organizations. Following a report of the structure of their laboratory experiment, the authors attend to four critical problems associated with this form of experimentation: (1) the nature and combination of properties considered to constitute the miniature replica of an organization, (2) instituting system and measurement controls, (3) the provision of structural proof, and (4) randomization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the features of bureaucracy in a government laboratory. The aim of the published paper is to show how a group of professional scientists and engineers has met the partly conflicting demands of bureaucratic procedures, professional standards, and personal values. In any organization the influence of specific individuals with personal interests and desires is felt. Their influence, together with that of the supervisory training and human relations programs in current use, tends to modify the bureaucratic features. The demands of bureaucratic procedures, professional standards, and personal values affect many aspects of the social system. The laboratory to be discussed conforms to civil service and naval regulations. In addition, it has a specific technical function which distinguishes it from other kinds of government agencies and allies it to non-governmental laboratories. The laboratory is one department of a naval station. The major facilities of the station are located elsewhere. The department has approximately 400 employees and is organized into staff offices, divisions, branches, and sections.

Bureaucracy is frequently viewed as being detrimental to certain aspects of professionalism. This paper examines the relationship between bureaucratic structure and degree of professional autonomy within the client-professional relationship. Perceived autonomy of physicians in three types of bureaucratic settings—non-bureaucratic, moderately bureaucratic, and highly bureaucratic—are compared. The data reveal that those associated with the moderately bureaucratic setting are most likely, and those in the highly bureaucratic setting are least likely, to perceive themselves as autonomous. These findings suggest that there is an optimal level of bureaucratic organization with respect to professional autonomy within the clientprofessional relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]