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This is the first of a series of papers designed to report the various stages of a longitudinal research project on the study of managerial effectiveness. The purposes of this article are: (1) to set forth the various dimensions of the overall research effort; (2) to present a review of the research on the prediction of managerial success or effectiveness; and, (3) to establish the focus for a second paper subsequently to appear in the Academy of Management Journal describing the results and implications of an intermediate research effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes recent studies based on the contingency model of leadership effectiveness which suggest why research typically has failed to show that leadership training and experience increase organizational performance. The contingency model postulates that group performance depends on the match between situational favorableness, that is, the leader's control and influence, and leadership motivation (as measured by the Least Preferred Coworker scale). Since leadership training and experience are designed to increase the leader's control and influence, they should improve the leader's situational favorableness. A change in situational favorableness through training and experience should, therefore, decrease the performance of some leaders while increasing that of others. The empirical evidence, reviewed in this paper, supports this hypothesis. Based on the contingency model, new strategies of leadership training and job rotation are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has a dual purpose: to build a conceptual approach to authoritative relations in organizations that permits a reasonable interpretation of existing research; and to encourage significant future research. Its focus is upon several concepts common in the study of authority, which are often treated as being more or less mutually exclusive but which may also be usefully considered as interacting overlays of authoritative relations. Thus, in this paper authoritative relations are conceived as "integrative," that is, as having "traditional," "functional," and "behavioral" component overlays. In the application of the integrative conceptual approach illustrated here, the crucial issue is the increase of the congruence of the several overlays so that they substantially reinforce one another. The relevant literature is sampled, both to illustrate applied techniques and to sketch an organization structure appropriate for increasing the congruence of the several overlays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses interorganizational linking mechanisms forming part of the micro-structure of government- industry contracting efforts. It analyzes models of buyer-seller relations under the uncertainties and cross-organizational interactions manifest in research and development. Alternative adaptations of project managerial modes are delineated and a tendency for project management to evolve toward "shared leadership" forms is posited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the relationship between several dimensions of team composition and the performance of 49 teams in an industrial research laboratory. Heterogeneous team membership was associated more frequently with superior success in all aspects of group performance. This relationship occurs, not simply because of the characteristics of group members or because of the variability of task demands, but also because of certain leadership functions and group problem-solving approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports tests of two hypotheses: (1) subordinates' satisfaction of role expectations will be positively related to leader consideration; and (2) consideration will have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between structure and satisfaction of role expectations. Under low consideration, satisfaction will be negatively related to initiating structure. With high consideration, satisfaction will not be related to initiating structure. The job description, job expectation, and leader behavior description questionnaires, developed at Ohio State University, were utilized. The investigation confirmed the first hypothesis, although the magnitudes of the correlations varied considerably among companies and among different measures of satisfaction. The findings failed to confirm the second hypothesis, and in fact suggested its opposite in one company. These findings are related to previous research and theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper identifies the leadership style, entrepreneurship, as a strategy employed by large organizations to cope with turbulent market environments. First, evidence from the popular music recording industry shows the several means by which the potentially disruptive consequences of entrepreneurship are reduced. Changes in the level of market turbulence since World War II are then explored to show that the scope of entrepreneurship is directly associated with the degree of turbulence. Finally, other organizational settings in which entrepreneurship and turbulence seem to be linked are identified, in order to suggest the generality of the relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper criticizes the assumption that participation of the less powerful in decision-making processes results in a reduction of differences in power between the more powerful and the less powerful. Empirical data about European work councils support this point of view. Preconditions are specified in which participation will, on the contrary, increase power differences, and the hypothesis is proved in three laboratory experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intent of this paper is to establish a comprehensive conceptual framework for the problem of managerial behavior and to investigate some of the critical components of the framework. Distinctive dimensions of managerial behavior and of situational variables were defined by factor analysis. The dimensions of managerial behavior were then correlated with effectiveness criteria to identify significant situational influences. A larger number of situational variables were found to influence the relationship between dimensions of managerial behavior and productivity than between these dimensions and morale. The importance of situational variables in influencing the effectiveness of managerial behavior is clearly shown in the results of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Authority systems in formal organizations are analyzed in terms of the process by which the performance of organizational participants is evaluated. Authority is viewed as authorization to attempt to control the behavior of others, and rests in four different kinds of authority rights, each of which is a component of the evaluation process. Authority systems are defined in terms of the distribution of these rights among participants. The theory specifies certain problems in the evaluation process, which make the authority system incompatible with participants' achievement of evaluations acceptable to them. Incompatible authority systems are postulated to be unstable and to remain so until the incompatibility is resolved. A set of indices is developed for the identification of unstable systems. This theory is the basis of a current study of authority systems in five organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effectiveness of a supervisory leadership style has been claimed contingent upon the supervisor's potential influence in the hierarchical system. But empirical and theoretical specification of these claims are notably lacking and the precise nature of the linkage between the style of leadership and hierarchical influence variables remains to be established. The results of this study show the supportive style of leadership to be a more powerful variable than hierarchical influence in contributing to the fulfillment of supervisory role obligations. Though, in general, hierarchical influence facilitates the relationship of this style of leadership to eight areas of role obligations, the magnitude and pervasiveness of this effect of influence varies markedly by area of supervisory role obligation and employee category when appropriate controls and comparisons are introduced. Two general hypotheses are offered to account for the differential effect of hierarchical influence under these conditions. The paper concludes with a set of research suggestions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes two dimensions of organizational performance termed intra- and interdepartmental stress. Specifically, the authors examine some relations between the perceptions of the leadership role held by hospital supervisors and the amount of "stress" within their departments and with other units of the organization. Significant relations were found, and, in general, the original hypotheses were confirmed. However, some situational differences point up the role of several organizational variables in effective supervisory-subordinate relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the results of an empirical test of the thesis that an adequate concept of leadership must include the performance of the leader in representing the interests of the group to higher organizational levels and to the organization's clientele. Two indexes were developed and incorporated into a Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire. Data from 872 elementary school teachers describing the behavior of 53 elementary school principals provided tentative support for the hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four measures have been developed from the Tomkins-Horn Picture Arrangement Test which can provide reliable information regarding the level of conformity in various groups. The present paper deals with the upper strata of the business and academic worlds. Evidence is presented which bears directly on assertions that top executives have remained relatively uninfluenced by pressures to conformity, while university professors have succumbed to these pressures. The author finds that conformity and deviance occur in both occupational groups, and that both are on the average less conforming than the typical college graduate. This relative nonconformity appears, however, to be an artifact associated with age differences. Professors and executives are, in general, no less conforming than others when age is held constant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is part of a larger study of executive succession and its consequences. Taking origin of successor as a variable, some propositions are developed and tested about succession of chief executives. These deal with conditions of employment, salary, rule making, staff expansion and replacement, attitudes toward mobility, tenure, and patterns of succession. The data demonstrate that school superintendents promoted from within and those brought in from outside relate to their organizations in different ways with different organizational consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper a normative model of social processes for decision making was presented. This model represented a slightly elaborated and refined version of a model presented in Vroom and Yetton. We share the previous authors' view that such models are far from perfect but can serve a useful function in stimulating research which, in time, will be reflected in better models. The latter half of this paper was devoted to questions related to how managers do select decision processes—to the factors which influence the degree to which they share their decision-making power with their subordinates. In pursuing these questions, we also relied heavily on the previous work of Vroom and Yetton by using a set of standardized cases selected in accordance with an experimental design. Each case depicted a leader faced with a problem to solve, and subjects were asked to assume his role and to select from a specified list of decision processes the one they would employ. The major difference from Vroom and Yetton was in the nature of the experimental design used in the construction of the "problem set." Whereas Vroom and Yetton's design utilized 30 "group problems" and five decision processes, the design used here provided for seven decision processes and 24 group and 24 individual problems. This design permitted the additional exploration of relationships between behavior on each kind of problem, and of the consistency of the behavior on the latter with the normative model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper suggests the fruitfulness, for studies of verbal participation in discussions, of shifting from studying participation per se to studying the interpersonal control of participation. Focusing first on the nature of the data to be analyzed, the paper then analyzes the data and reconciles it with ocher findings in the literature to develop the concept of a hierarchical structure of communication. In this concept, leadership roles and levels of participation are seen as coincidental, arising out of interpersonal interchanges ultimately directed toward achieving coordination and consensus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whenever the journal prints a controversial article someone is sure to protest, "Why don't you print along with it a rebuttal paper?" or "Why print such an outrageous point of view?" The policy of your Editorial Board is to print controversial papers if they meet publication standards letting the chips fall. This is true even when the article is anathema to the editors. To what extent is the central agency to modify or replace the roles of the traditional autonomous operating agency? Yes, your agency, dear reader. It is another version of the federal-states rights principle, not easily solved but enormously important how it is solved. Assuming that the role of the autonomous agency will be modified, does not the individual agency with its leadership board prove to be a constructive counter-foil in the central power structure? Another point-when the goal for community planning is stated as problem centered with the objective of social welfare, none can quarrel with it.

The paper presents an integrative analysis of voluntary associational leadership and reputational influence. It is noted that the degree to which leadership in voluntary organizations contributes to reputational influence patterns in the general community is not an easily predictable phenomenon. It becomes clear that no "a priori" assumptions can be made about the role of voluntary groups in the general leadership of any given community. There is a need, however, to distinguish the "organizational community" from the community in which formal voluntary groups are of considerably less significance. The study results of the overlap of reputational influentials and formal leaders in four towns are given in tabular form. The factors are number of reputational individuals, number of formal leaders, maximum possible overlap, actual overlap and percentage overlap. From the point of view of influence structures, it was discovered that the larger the town the greater the number of persons who receive a given proportion of nominations as an influential. The results of the study presented in this paper justify the trend toward the use of a combination of the positional and reputational methods of identifying leaders.

This paper makes a distinction between ‘opinion leadership’ and traditional leadership in the process of directed change in underdeveloped areas. Using the case study method, an attempt is made to demonstrate that each of the two types of leadership is suited to a specific situation. Using support from Max Weber's argument that the traditional leader is free to confer grace quite arbitrarily, the potentiality of this type of leadership as an instrument for social change is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary T his report is concerned with the validity of measures of physical proficiency for the selection of Air Force officer candidates and the relationships of physical proficiency measures to leadership and personality measures. This paper is one in a series describing the evaluation of members of two Air Force Officer Candidate School (OCS) classes by means of assessment techniques administered during a three and one-half day period at the beginning of each class. The results of this study indicate that measures of physical proficiency are moderately interrelated and yield a total score with satisfactory internal consistency. The total physical proficiency score correlated only slightly with OCS military grades (essentially peers'estimates of future officer potentiality) and not at all with the other criteria, which included a highly valid intermediate officer effectiveness measure. Relationships between the physical proficiency score and other assessment and personality measures indicate that the candidate high on physical proficiency is not unlike the stereotype of the 'all American boy'-extroverted, energetic, assertive, and socially poised. It is concluded that physical proficiency measures are probably of little value in selecting individuals for officer training or other programs requiring small group leadership behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper was to review the research literature on the relationship between "Consideration," "Initiating Structure," and organizational criteria. The results show a predominance of low to moderate correlations, but almost all of a concurrent validity nature. There is as yet almost no evidence on the predictive validity of "Consideration" and "Initiating Structure" nor on the kinds of situational moderators which might affect such validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper highlights the hazards as well as the benefits of multifunctional regional council leadership in areawide CHP. It also contains a series of recommendations on the dimensions of regional council/CHP advisory group balance between control and delegation of authority, using the Twin Cities experience as a case illustration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the author, Edward D. Jones's paper on the relation of education to industrial efficiency is of extreme importance, because 1) he has demonstrated the fact that such general principles exist, 2) he has emphasized the great importance of industrial leadership, a subject that has never publicly received the attention which it deserves, and 3) he has urged teachers of economics and business administration to regard the industrial manager not only as a ruler of matter and force, but as a leader of men. Jones has made it perfectly clear that as all "administration" means directing the activities of men, the particular kind of activity is incidental, and subject to general laws. The importance of leadership has been given all too little attention in the past, apparently for the reason that accidental conditions have in many cases been quite as effective in securing wealth as has leadership. Jones's insistence that teachers of economics and business administration should regard the business leader as not only a ruler of matter and force, but as also a leader of men, is exactly right.

The reported experiment is based on a few assumptions. First that people perceive each other in the two dimensions of tower as the ability to satisfy needs, and acceptance defined as the willingness to do so. A new research tool, based on these assumptions, the statogram, has been introduced. The second assumption (tested in other experiments) is that human groups should be divided into Instrumental, Mutual Acceptance, and Vectorial ones according to the objectives of their members. The experimental group reported here was an Instrumental one. Leadership in an Instrumental group has been studied experimentally in the reported experiment. Leadership has been defined as a relationship between two parts of a group in which one part, the leader (s), initiates, stimulates, and sometimes even determines the activities of the other part called follower (s). This study emphasizes the situational factors in leadership. Leadership is a function of the specific situation in a group. Specific hypothesis has been brought forward that in an Instrumental group, leadership is rather a function of power than of acceptance. A group of six subjects was assembled, two of them especially instructed, one of them had to behave like a strong but unfriendly person while the other had to be very friendly and weak. The results of statogram and of observers, mutually highly correlated, did prove what has been anticipated. A series of experiments are being conducted to develop the new research tool applied in this study and to corroborate further and on larger samples the hypothesis proposed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information about several books related to sociology. "Diverging Parallels: A Comparison of American and European Thought and Action," edited by A.N.J. den Hollander, is a collection of papers presented at two meetings of the European Association for American Studies, ferreting out likenesses and differences in European and American cultures. Comparisons touch war and diplomacy, education, conceptions of the tragic, romantic and heroic, the idea of evil and thought processes. "Religion's Influence in Contemporary Society: Readings in the Sociology of Religion," edited by Joseph E. Faulkner, is a judicious selection of theoretical and empirical studies arranged under four headings: efforts to delimit the field of study, religion in the church: members, leadership, and organizational structure, the church in society, and religion and social change: urbanization, secularization, and the future. "Black Psyche: the Modal Personality Patterns of Black Americans," edited by Stanley S. Guterman, is a useful collection of materials that suggest the social construction of a modal personality among the U.S. blacks. Contributions, chiefly by sociologists, arc grouped under three headings: the social and historical backdrop, characteristics of the modal personality, and personality influences on behavior.

This paper compares two theoretical explanations for differential participation in religious organizations. Using leadership selection as the measure of participation and the "Mormon" missionary system as the population, relationships between selectee socioeconomic status and participation and between selector-selectee socioeconomic status similarity and selectee participation are examined. The data indicate that the socioeconomic similarity dimension is more highly related to participation than simple selectee socioeconomic status. The importance of similarity on other dimensions is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of community power, influence, and leadership have rapidly increased in popularity and in number during the decade since Hunter's epochal study of Regional City in 1954. Foci of the various studies since then have ranged from the delineation of traits of leaders or power figures to conceptualizations of types of community power structures. Some few studies have been concerned with the relationship between attributes and actions of community leaders and community social structure. Outside the field of sociometric research the distribution of influence and the effect of community social structure upon this distribution has received little more than passing attention. The usual leadership research is concerned with the study of ways in which leadership affects the social structure of the community. This study will attempt to take the reverse orientation, that of how social structure affects leadership. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the distribution of influence and community social structure. More specifically, this study is concerned with the relationship between consensus on leadership and community homogeneity. Homogeneity of community socioeconomic characteristics is assumed to be a basis for the shared values, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and interests which serve as the basis for community consensus which may be manifested in agreement on nominations (choices) of community influentials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conscious pursuit of public goals is the essence of public policymaking. Policy process involves among other things activating and mobilizing various administrative elements such as authority, structure, resources, procedures, and relations. Rationality requires that these elements become continuously restructured, revamped, and realigned in order to maximize the goal effectiveness of policy. The effort to gear administrative elements to the achievement of deliberate policy goals is administrative reform. This is a continuous and prevasive process. Now the crux of administrative reform is innovation, that is, injection of new ideas and new people in new combinations of tasks and relationships into the policy and administration process. This is, however, not an automatic process. It requires strategy in order to facilitate its adoption and diffusion throughout the public organization. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relevance of innovation theory to administration in developing countries in general and administrative reform in particular and then to devise a heuristic matrix of administrative reform strategy that brings to the fore innovational leadership and environmental factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers a series of proposals for furthering the development of elementary school guidance. Certain assumptions underlying future action were stated. In proposing a national-level plan to determine the nature and characteristics of guidance in the elementary school, several possibilities were offered as to organizational plans and leadership responsibility. The main proposal offered in this paper discussed functional operations both in the area of research and experimentation as well as in theory construction. Specific areas of investigation were proposed. A position statement was recommended and several features of such a position statement were suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the serious lag that exists in the synthesis and transmission of knowledge concerning the aged and in its utilization to meet human needs. Social work education should exercise leadership in challenging rather than reflecting inappropriate attitudes and approaches at every level from individual case management to social planning of broad programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thesis of this paper is that legal services on behalf of the poor will greatly facilitate the attainment of social work goals. It is argued that the role of social work is central if the provision of such legal services is to be realized. Without its influence and leadership it is doubtful that these programs can be permanently and successfully mounted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central concern of this paper is to present a critical analysis of Professor Seymour Martin Lipset's contributions to political sociology, with special reference to his theory of working class authoritarianism. The general thesis is that Lipset's more recent orientations reflect a conservative bias which has come to dominate originally radical impulses. This conservative refraction, most apparent in the analysis of working-class political orientations, organizations, and leadership results in a somewhat strained eclecticism. The result is that Lipset forces the research data into confined support for a conservative view of working-class political process. It is suggested that this conservative ideology presently informs Lipset's general outlook toward the field of political sociology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the study on the usefulness of a paper-and-pencil response inventory in evaluating a group leader's level of facilitative interpersonal functioning. Five discussion-group leaders responded in writing to a 13-item inventory asking them to formulate a helpful response to each statement. A videotaped discussion of each group leader was also rated using the Carkhuff empathy scale. The Pearson product-moment correlations were computed between the empathy ratings derived from the written responses and from the tapes. Results show that there are strong positive relationships between the rated written response and the taped discussion. It was concluded that the paper-and-pencil inventory is an efficient indicator of a leader's interpersonal functioning.

Studies of U.S. communities suggest that status structure is reflected in the operation of local institutions. The article presents a recent investigation of leadership to test this generalization in its application to one specific institution, a high school of a New England town. The usual high school organization, with each ascending grade possessing increasing power and prestige, provides a clearly defined point of departure for a study of status relationships. The strategy of analysis in the study was two-fold. The first step was to devise a paper and pencil test that would reflect the grade and sex stratification observed in the community high school. The second step was to apply this instrument in an attempt to determine whether or not stratification in the community, based on class, ethnic group, and religion, is reflected in the school system. To carry out this plan, each student in the high school read a list of all other students in the school. The student respondent was instructed to check the names of those students who influenced him. The discussion in the article is confined to the dichotomy of influence and no influence and to the responses of the freshman and junior classes.