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The Lake Wingra Study is an integrated, interdisciplinary programme which has been developing mathematical models of the hydrological, biological, and nutrient, cycles in a man-modified lake-basin in Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Computer simulations based on these models promise to aid in the prediction of urban impact on the land-water systems within the Lake Wingra basin. Such information should also increase the effectiveness of environmental quality management in Lake Wingra and similar watersheds. So far, the greatest success has been the development of process models which describe individual components of highly complex ecosystems. Examples include models of nutrient cycling and the growth of Algae, aquatic weeds, and fish. Further work on synthesizing individual process models of the Lake, and integrating this information with data from other United States and foreign sites, will receive top priority from the Lake Wingra scientists during 1974.

Growth and Environment: A Model of Optimal Control. — Agrowth-cum-environment model is analyzed assuming reproducible factors of production subject only to economic constraints, fund factors like exhaustible or energy resources subject to environmental and economic constraints, and environmental services subject to the constraint of the assimilative capacity of the environment. The formal set-up of the model is severely aggregated, but particular attention is given to the admissable economic specification of the model framework.

Este trabajo tiene por objeto hacer un análisis legal y jurisprudencial de los servicios ecosistémicos brindados por bosques y humedales en la Argentina en el período 2000-2012. Hemos utilizado: a) la observación documental (de normas y jurisprudencia); b) la observación directa; c) el método de estudio de casos; y d) el análisis comparativo-descriptivo. La recogida de datos primarios y secundarios denota una ausencia de políticas públicas en torno a los servicios ecosistémicos en el ámbito analizado. Tampoco hay decisión política sobre el pago de estos servicios, por ende, su valoración económica es subjetiva y aleatoria ya que –al no haber parámetros legales preestablecidos– resulta difícil determinar equitativamente para la sociedad y la protección de la naturaleza. El trabajo concluye con una propuesta de política ambiental basada en los procesos de fitorremediación para mejorar la calidad del agua en entornos de ribera fluvial boscosa. This paper is focused on the legal and jurisprudential analysis of the ecosystem services provided by forests and wetlands in Argentina during 2000-2012. The study is based on: (a) documentary search and analysis (laws and case-laws); (b) the direct observation method; c) the casestudy approach; and (d) the comparative-descriptive analysis. The primary and secondary data gathered by authors denotes a lack of public policies on ecosystem services in Argentina. On the other hand, due to the fact that there is no political decision about the obligation to pay for these services and any legal parameter pre-established, the economic value of ecosystem services is arbitrary and based on subjective judgment. The article concludes with a proposal for environmental policy oriented towards the implementation of phytoremediation processes to improve water quality in environments wooded riverbank. Ce travail vise à faire une analyse juridique et jurisprudentielle des services fournis par les forêts et les zones humides en Argentine dans la période 2000-2012 écosystème. Nous avons utilisé: a) l'observation documentaire (règles et jurisprudence); b) l'observation directe; c) la méthode d'étude de cas; et d) l'analyse comparative descriptive. La collecte des données primaires et secondaires dénote un manque de politiques publiques sur les services écosystémiques dans le domaine analysé. Il n'y a également aucune décision politique sur le paiement de ces services, donc leur valeur économique est subjective et aléatoire comme -at ont pas de paramètres juridiques preestablecidos- difficile de déterminer assez pour la société et la protection de la nature. Le document se termine par une proposition de politique environnementale basée sur des processus de phytoremédiation pour améliorer la qualité de l'eau dans des environnements berges boisées.

Apart from physical products, community forests (CF) in Nepal generate various ecosystem services that could be important not only to the stakeholders at local level, but also to the stakeholders at the regional and the global levels. Water supply from CF would be one of the many ecosystem services whose benefits are provided to the stakeholders. Considering the economic importance of water supply service from CF, this study aims to assess the economic value of the water supply as a service from two CFs and also identify the factors affecting an individual's willingness to pay (WTP). Contingent valuation method was applied to evaluate the water supply service based on the information of users' WTP. Data from 74 households (HH) in Lipindevi Thulopakho and Jarneldhara CFs in Palpa district (surveyed during May-June, 2008) were used. Results indicated that the mean WTP of Lipindevi Thulopakho and Jarneldhara CF users were US$ 36.62 and 25.62 HH -1 yr -1 , respectively. The economic value of water supply service from Lipindevi Thulopakho and Jarneldhara CF were US$ 93.54 ha -1 yr -1 and 134.06 ha -1 yr -1 , respectively. Factors like distance of the house from water source, daily water consumption, wealth status and caste were associated with substantial influences on an individual's WTP. This study concludes that there would be a high possibility for generating extra income with the development of a payment mechanism for water supply service from CF. Key words: Community forest; contingent valuation; economic valuation; water supply; willingness to pay DOI: 10.3126/banko.v20i1.3505 Banko Janakari , Vol. 20, No. 1 pp.24-29

Known as ‘Simsar (sim = low-grade land; sar = water)’ in Nepali, wetlands are those areas which lie between the land and deepwater and remain waterlogged or submerged under water, seasonally or throughout the year. Generally the land is so muddy that one cannot easily walk over it, and the water is so deep that one can neither swim nor get drowned. River floodplains, shallow margins of lakes and reservoirs, shallow and seasonal ponds, islands in rivers, deepwater paddy fields, and seacoasts are typical examples of the wetlands. Wetlands are essential for the free ecosystem services that they provide to the human community. The most obvious are maintenance or improvement of water quality, groundwater discharge and recharge, erosion control, soil building, food chain production, nutrient cycling and biogeochemical processes, habitat for wildlife, and numerous socioeconomic qualities such as food, forage, hunting and trapping, sites for research and environmental education, cultural heritage, open space preservation, aesthetics, tourism and recreation. They are also important because attention has been turned recently to using the wetland systems and the plant species occurring therein as bio-energy sources and also for use in pollution abatement projects to filter sewage, agricultural run-off, leachate from landfills, and acid mine drainage mitigation (Brooks 1989, Oliver and Hill 1998). It is the constellation of these and other functions and values that the wetlands are recognized as the ‘kidneys of the landscape’ or called as ‘biological supermarkets’. Unfortunately, the wetlands are being degraded today mainly due to pollution from sewage and industrial effluents, and from overexploitation of resources. The wetlands are rapidly disappearing because of the general notion that they are waterlogged and unproductive lands, which harbour diseasecarrying insects, pests and poisonous snakes. They are drained and/or filled for agriculture, human settlements and industries besides being rapidly silted due to large-scale deforestation in surrounding areas, and they are also being dried up in many places as rivers are dammed and channelized for the generation of hydroelectricity and other purposes.

Nepal’s forest resources underpin the livelihoods of rural people in important ways. During the country's "planned development" over the past 50 years, the government, donors and policy makers have viewed these resources as a key vehicle for ushering in economic growth and for meeting basic needs. They underscore the potential value of forest resources for achieving conservation and socio-economic objectives. To what extent have economic incentives been generated to effectively harness these resources to meet the said objectives is an open question. To address this question, this paper reviews briefly and broadly the economic potential of the country’s forest resources in terms of forest goods and services. Estimates of economic potential of timber and non-timber forest products and environmental services have been assessed. A number of recommendations for realizing the potential for achieving development and poverty reduction objectives is provided. Key words: Forestry; non-timber forest products; ecosystem services; economic potential; livelihood DOI: 10.3126/banko.v20i2.4803 Banko Janakari Vol.20(2) 2010 pp.48-52

Payment for Environmental Services (PES) in its preliminary stage is gaining much attention. The worth of many valuable environmental services is undermined from centuries due its free access. But now with the advancing time the blind conservation practices seem to be unreal. Thus, PES mechanism provides an attractive and convincing package in conservation and valuation of most of the indirect services of environment. This is a review article based on the introductory queries on emerging issue of valuation of environmental services via PES mechanism. Key Words: Environmental services, Global biodiversity, Conservation practices DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2529 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp99-103

The Terai, considered the granary of Nepal, is facing serious threat from siltation originating from the Churia hills mainly due to heavy deforestation together with forest and watershed degradation. Discussions with local community people revealed that no such problem existed 5-6 decades ago when the Churia forest was intact. All the forestry sector policies had recognized the Churia hills as fragile and environmentally sensitive, but the concerned government agencies and the local community people have not been able to conserve this region effectively. There is heavy exploitation of the Churia hills for the extraction of timber, firewood, non-timber forest products, and for grazing resources. In addition, gravel, sand and boulders are also being extracted for the sake of revenue to the local governments. Jalad River of Dhanusha district originating from the Churia hills has been converting fertile and productive agriculture lands into barren river beds at the rate of 25 hectares a year. The Churia hills should be conserved for the environmental services of the watershed to the entire Terai region rather than for provisioning tangible forest products services only to the upstream local communities. Key Words: Environmental services; Churia-Terai linkage; PES; upstream-downstream DOI: 10.3126/banko.v20i1.3504 Banko Janakari , Vol. 20, No. 1 pp.17-23

The principles of ecological succession bear importantly on the relationships between man and nature. The framework of successional theory needs to be examined as a basis for resolving man’s present environmental crisis. Most ideas pertaining to the development of ecological systems are based on descriptive data obtained by observing changes in biotic communities over long periods, or on highly theoretical assumptions; very few of the generally accepted hypotheses have been tested experimentally. Some of the confusion, vagueness, and lack of experimental work in this area stems from the tendency of ecologists to regard “succession” as a single straightforward idea; in actual fact, it entails an interacting complex of processes, some of which counteract one another.

El mecanismo de mitigación para el cambio climático, REDD+, representa una se las estrategias financieras que utiliza el pago por servicios ambientales para reducción de emisiones de carbono. Nacida dentro de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático, REDD+ ha sido diseñada para contribuir a la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera a causa de la deforestación y degradación de los bosques, en los países en vías de desarrollo con importantes masas forestales. Para fortalecer el mecanismo se han creado salvaguardas, que, aplicadas al mecanismo, tendrán la función de precautelar los derechos de las poblaciones que habitan y hacen uso de los bosques, reconocidos por los ordenamientos internos de los países, así como a escala internacional. El diseño del mecanismo REDD+ contempla los métodos financieros para su funcionamiento. Fuentes y distribución de los recursos. El presente trabajo explica cómo las salvaguardas son empleadas en dichos esquemas de financiación con el fin de que los derechos estén garantizados en todos los componentes de REDD+. The mechanism for climate change mitigation, REDD + represents a financial strategie in which payment for environmental services to reduce carbon emissions is used. Born in the Framework Convention of the United Nations Climate Change, REDD + is designed to help reduce emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere caused by deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries with tropical forests. To strengthen the mechanism, they have been established safeguards, which, applied to the mechanism will guarantee the human rights of populations living and making use of forests, recognized by the internal systems of the countries and in an international scale.The design of REDD+ provides financial methods for operation. The financial sources and the distribution of the resources. This paper explains how the safeguards are employed in these financing schemes in order to protect these rights in all components of REDD +. Le mécanisme pour atténuer le changement climatique, REDD + représente une des stratégiesfinancières sont utilisées par le paiement des services environnementaux pour réduire les émissions decarbone. Né à la Convention-cadre de l'évolution du climat des Nations Unies, REDD + est conçu pouraider à réduire les émissions de GES dans l'atmosphère en raison de la déforestation et de la dégradationdes forêts dans les pays le développement des forêts importantes. Pour renforcer le mécanisme qu'ils ontété mis en place des garanties qui, appliquée au mécanisme fonctionnera à la sauvegarde des droits despopulations vivant et faire usage des forêts, reconnu par les systèmes internes des pays et à l'étranger. Laconception du mécanisme REDD + fournit des méthodes financières pour le fonctionnement. Sources etrépartition des ressources. Ce document explique comment les garanties sont employés dans cessystèmes de financement afin que les droits sont garantis dans toutes les composantes de la REDD +.

With a view to highlight the issues of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) in Nepal, the paper aims at providing information on possible environmental goods and services rendered by the Shivapuri National Park (ShNP), Kathmandu. It also endeavors to explore the policy issues with regards to PES in Nepal. Secondary information was obtained through published and unpublished literatures and office records of ShNP whereas primary information was generated through various Rapid Appraisal tools; such as informal discussion with park officials, semi-structured interview, field observation etc. Despite the ShNP's role in providing environmental goods and services to the dwellers of Kathmandu metropolitan, the local inhabitants have not been benefited from such services. There has been low level of awareness on the issues such as environmental goods and services and possible benefits to be obtained and its equitable sharing. It is the dire need that policy should focus on these issues so that all the stakeholders could be benefited from the conservation and management of protected areas and forests in the country. Key Words: Payment for environmental services, Shivapuri national park, Upstream and downstream relationship, Benefit sharing, Free riders. DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2525 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp63-72

Aquatic resources are increasingly stressed primarily due to anthropogenic activities in Ethiopia. These anthropogenic stresses altered ecological integrities and compromised ecosystem services that could otherwise support the livelihoods of millions of people. Evidence-based management of the degradation of aquatic ecosystems requires quantifying ecologically significant changes and discriminating among impact levels and types. Apart from physico-chemistry, monitoring of aquatic ecosystems using biological organisms is progressing well in recent times both in the tropics and temperate regions. The majority of studies so far focused on macroinvertebrates and to a lesser extent on diatoms. Though the method is given less attention, individual initiatives have been increasing over time especially in developing countries, including Ethiopia. This paper reviews current efforts undertaken and major challenges facing the use of bioindicators in aquatic ecosystems as biological monitoring tools. The possible application of biomonitoring and its importance for Ethiopian aquatic ecosystems is also discussed and future improvements suggested.

Understanding local people’s socio-economic values of wetlands and traditional mechanisms of managing natural resources forms the basis of conserving them. Wetlands have frequently been developed for short-term economic gains that destroy their ecological values and environmental services in the long term. A study was carried out to assess socio-economic values of the wetland resources, environmental threats around Lake Manyara and local community awareness on causes of environmental changes, degradation in the wetlands and their effects using 80 respondents. Field surveys, interviews, questionnaires and direct observation were used in data collection. It was found that local community was aware on the ecosystem services accrued from the wetlands which were unsustainably used. However, environmental degradation due to unsustainable agriculture, overgrazing, deforestation, urbanization and mining was rampant which had resulted to soil erosion, reduced water availability, wildlife mortality and frequent dry up of Lake Manyara and rivers. In order to protect the lake basin; controlled human activities, land use and water resources within the catchment are to be done in cooperation between the government departments, local authorities and the general local community around. Key words: Ecosystem services; rivers; Lake Manyara; wetland; agriculture DOI: 10.3126/jowe.v4i0.4153Journal of Wetlands Ecology, (2010) Vol. 4, pp 83-101

' All science proceeds by a selective ordering of data by means of conceptual schemes. Although the formulation and application of conceptual schemes are recognized to entail, at some stage of inquiry, more or less arbitrary choices on the part of the theorist or investigator, we all acknowledge, or at lea feel, that the nature of the "real world" exc :ises strong constraints on the developm~nt of schemes in science. Some schemes, used frUItfully over long peri~ds ~f time, co~e to .seem s~ natu.rafl . that we find It dIfficult to Imagme then bemg superseded. One type of scheme is deeply i~ grained by our training as social scientists, ~o WIt, the organization of data by ley~(~. ,Kroeber:s o~ly voicing the consensus of a maJonty of SCIentIsts when he writes

Invasive alien species colonize aggressively, threatening native biodiversity. The success of invasive alien plants is due to their opportunistic exploitation of anthropogenic disturbances, the absence of natural enemies, and, frequently, their allelopathic competitive strategies. Invasive species can have a significant impact on development, affecting sustainability of livelihood, food security and essential ecosystem services and dynamics. Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. and E. odoratum L. (forest killer, local name banmara) are unpalatable and highly competitive. They have taken hold in scattered sites throughout eastern and central Nepal, currently, they are also rapidly spreading westward. Efforts are being made to control established invasive species, but a better understanding of why species become invasive offers the possibility of taking pre-emptive measures. Key words: Invasive alien plant species, Eupatorium, biological control, livelihood Himalayan Journal of Sciences 1(2): 129-133, 2003

Asia is the most populous region, with a substantial number of global biodiversity hotspots and several megadiverse countries, including Malaysia, with rich cultural and natural heritages. In this region, natural heritages within protected areas is under threat with high tendency of biodiversity losses. Exploitation is widespread but effective conservation is hampered by lack of systematically dynamic policies and instruments. This study attempts to relook at key factors that strengthen policies towards conserving biodiversity at national parks (NPs) in Bangladesh and Sarawak, Malaysia. It focuses on the analysis and review of the present tools (policy, growth of national parks and legal aspects) used to enhance conservation activities within and around these areas through literature review, observations of some of the parks, as well as interviews with relevant staff and indigenous community. The study showed that the growth of NPs maximized for the period of 2010 to 2014 both in Bangladesh and Sarawak, Malaysia reflecting the importance that both countries are placing on the conservation of biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide. This is indeed a positive sign that both two countries reveal towards achieving Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 for the global protected areas network. Overall, the study suggests that the dynamic policy-based decision-making on sustainable biodiversity protection at NPs in both countries should incorporate development with environmental, economic, social, institutional and administrative domains.

Nepal, a developing country has low per capita income and 2.8% economic growth rate. This simply implies higher marginal utility of income and lower willingness to pay for environmental improvements and amenities. Biodiversity has multiple benefits, but some economic obstacles like lack of appropriate market pricing, intangible nature of social benefit derived by conservation of biological resources, ownership issue, and conventional method of national income accounting, make some illusion to adopt market based biodiversity conservation approaches in developing country like Nepal. This literature review paper attempts to summarize the economic benefits of biodiversity, threats of biodiversity conservation in Nepal and some financial appraisal of biodiversity conservation of Nepal (in case of Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation & their some field offices). In Nepal, biodiversity conservation efforts have largely been centered on protection of natural resources within Protected Areas (PA) which is not justifiable but many of naturalists are in this dilemma. The issue of ‘conservation for people' tries to enforce policy maker, PA manager and other stakeholders to carry economically sound biodiversity conservation mechanism which ultimately tends to the PA for human welfare. The provision of economic incentives either by the direct investment or by creating economic opportunities leads to the promotion of biodiversity conservation. The poorer the people lower the willingness to pay for environmental quality or amenities because of the income elasticity of environmental services. Key Words: Biodiversity conservation, Economic growth, Environmental services, Economic benefits and constraints DOI: 10.3126/init.v2i1.2524 The Initiation Vol.2(1) 2008 pp55-61

This paper describes two recently completed office buildings which are of a similar size and in both of which integrated environmental services were an essential feature of the building design. Details of the services installed in each building are described and experience in their operation is reported and discussed, including a comparison of the operating costs for the separate services. It is concluded that experience with these buildings shows that the performance of buildings of the type described in the paper can in many respects be predicted with some accuracy at the design stage.

(1973). environmental services: Efficient management of check-outs. Hospital Topics: Vol. 51, No. 12, pp. 34-36.

(1973). environmental services: Tips on writing memoranda, reports. Hospital Topics: Vol. 51, No. 11, pp. 54-56.

On spaceship Earth there is an interrelationship between population, resources and environment. Population is a demand factor, making demands upon resources and environment. The demand made is the product of numbers and expectations, both of which are growing rapidly at the present time. The end product I take to be human welfare, which probably involves satisfying most but not all of the expectation. Resources are often classified into renewable, like soil and plants, or non-renewable, like fossil fuels or metals. Both sorts. however, have fairly finite limits to their exploitations. The environment may be regarded as having a finite if somewhat elastic carrying capacity for people and their activities, including their wastes and pollution. Beyond this limit, serious problems, such as the breakdown of life-support systems, may occur. There is also something perceived by the population as a good environment and therefore as a component of the quality of life and hence of human welfare. Certain human activity tends to cause a progressive decline in the quality of the environment and this occurs well before the total ecological breakdown mentioned above.

Every human being occupies some part of a complicated organization. A group of students, brought together in a particular place, make up a school. The students, in turn, are grouped into a variety of classes assigned to particular teachers, and the teachers themselves are responsible to a small number of local administrators. It is interesting to extend this idea to include the entire school system of which you are a part.

It is quite obvious, but still worth emphasizing here, that water is essential to life. Everyone is aware that the processes of life stop in the absence of water. Even those plants and animals that seem to have dispensed with the need for water by living on land or in the air have their lives regulated by the water supply. This, no doubt, is related to the fact that all known plants and animals maintain a very watery internal environment, even if they are quite dry outside.

In the previous two chapters we have investigated the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of organisms, using from time to time the terms ‘population’ and ‘community’. A ‘population’ was assumed to be all of the individuals of one of the species in a multi-species ‘community’, or to be a community of only one species. However, this does not define either term rigorously. We must either make a precise definition or investigate why a more casual definition is the more useful.

Climate change involves, perhaps most serious changes in the frequency and magnitude of whether events. There is widespread agreement that globing warming is associated with the most severe fluctuations, particularly in combination with intensified monsoon circulation. Climate change, land use change, and population dynamics are the major drivers of environmental change. These drivers have influenced ecosystem services, and in many cases have had a negative impact on the livelihood of people and increased their economic and environmental vulnerability.

FIRST of all I must express my lively sense of the great honour the Society has done me by electing me to its Presidency for a second time. It is an interesting and on the whole a cheering exercise to look back over the quartercentury that has elapsed since the foundation of the Society, to compare my estimate of the position of British ecology in 1914 with what we may say of it to-day, to contemplate the good work that has been done during the period, and the promise of the future. Nearly all that I said of ecology as a subject in my Presidential Address of May, 1914, on the eve of the Great War, is still, in my judgment, true. The ecological outlook on biology is vitally important, not only to pure science but because of its application to human life and activity in the widest sense. The difficulties of the subject are still very much what they were 25 years ago, and the right ways to overcome them have not changed. In 1914 I looked forward confidently to a development of ecology which would give it a much higher status in the estimation of biologists at large and of those who should be concerned with its practical applications; and this expectation has been to a large extent realized. It is true that progress has been somewhat slower than I anticipated-at least in my more optimistic moments. But what we may call the rise in ecological stock has been fairly proportional to the increase in value and interest of the work produced-and that is as it should be. I think it is still not clearly enough realized, especially by those biologists who are not ecologists, that ecology is not so much a special branch of biologyin the sense that genetics or the physiology of nutrition are special branchesas a way of regarding animal and plant life. Its development depends on the application of various kinds of biological technique, as well as the techniques of physics and chemistry, to the problems presented by animals and plants studied in their natural and semi-natural environments. To these borrowed and adapted techniques are added those of the ecologist's own devising. A large part of the future work of plant ecology will, I think, be concerned with life form and its relation on the one hand to environment and on the other to heredity. Necessarily involved in this work is the whole problem of the phenotypic complexes which we call species and their relation to genetic constitution-a topic recently brought prominently to the attention of the

doi: 10.3126/banko.v19i1.2182Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1, 41