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Carbon aerogels (CAs) are emerging carbon-based cellular materials with high porosity, low density, and a variety of functions. The combination of all these unique properties contributes to their wide applications in flexible sensors, energy devices, acoustic devices, and environmental applications. However, their wide applications are strictly limited by poor mechanical robustness. The existing conflicts between mechanical robustness and the sparse network of porous materials have never received due attention. Good robustness could ensure structural integrity and performance stability for practical applications of aerogels. Here, we discuss recently emerged strategies for optimizing mechanical robustness, including cell-wall strengthening, cell-wall orientation, pore topology control, and joint reinforcement. Particularly, we conclude advanced design principles to achieve stretching elasticity of CAs without introducing intrinsically stretchable elastomers. In addition, we briefly overview the recent applications of robust CAs and provide an outlook on the open questions for obtaining more mechanically robust CAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flashover failure and damage of polypropylene (PP) and polyester (PET) films under nanosecond current pulses were experimentally investigated. A nanosecond pulse current test platform was established to study the flashover characteristics, performance degradation, and structural damage of dielectric films under repeated nanosecond current pulses. The accumulation and emission of surface charge influenced by field distortion and trap distribution were analyzed to clarify the mechanism by which the flashover voltage increases linearly with gas pressure at low pressure and saturates at high pressure. The significant effects of pulse energy, gas pressure, and discharge gap on film damage behavior were investigated. The damage pattern of PP and PET films includes surface deformation, reduced flash-voltage tolerance, molecular chain breakage, and group shedding. The damage of PP films is manifested as fine furrows, while PET corresponds to mountainous bumps. With the increasing number of discharges, the breakdown voltage of PP films decreased significantly, while the flash tolerance performance of PET films was more stable. Under the conditions of high pulse current amplitude, small discharge gap, and low air pressure, the damage degree of the film intensifies, which is characterized by severe destruction to the molecular structure and a significant decrease in flashover withstand voltage. Polymer films, flashover, nanosecond current pulses; performance degradation; microstructural damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coaxial peaking capacitor is a key component in high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (EMP) simulators with fast front pulse output. It poses significant technical and engineering challenges in limiting radiation field amplitude and test space. This paper presents the design and testing of a 180 pF, 3 MV coaxial peaking capacitor with improved insulation performance. In the insulation design, the length of the dielectric film is extended to reduce the background electric field on the flashover path. The electric field threshold obtained from image diagnosis is used as a reference. During capacitor testing, the insulation characteristics are diagnosed using both direct and indirect methods. The voltage measured by a D-dot probe, the output waveform of the Marx generator in the primary source, and the radiation field waveform are analyzed to understand the flashover characteristics of the capacitor and to improve the reliability of the test results. The experimental results demonstrate that the peaking capacitor can operate stably at 3.0 MV. If flashover occurring on the dropping edge of the pulse is permitted, the operating voltage can be greater than 3.7 MV without significantly affecting the radiation field waveform. The analysis on the surface flashover morphology of the peaking capacitor reveals that the flashover mainly occurs at the dropping edge of the capacitor's waveform, indicating that the damage to the film is not serious. This research significantly increases the working voltage of coaxial peaking capacitors and contributes to the development of high-altitude EMP simulation technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The formation and evolution of the cathode plasma in small-gap magnetically insulated transmission lines (MITLs) may lead to enormous current loss and even gap closure. This issue has been investigated through particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo collision simulations. Based on gas desorption from the cathode, the plasma is formed at the cathode when the emitted electrons collide with the desorbed gas contaminants. The expansion velocity and the electron and ion density distributions of the cathode plasma were analyzed. Rapid expansion of the plasma occurs when plasma instability increases due to a transverse magnetic mode in the MITL. Factors affecting the expansion velocity such as voltage amplitude and rate of gas desorption were examined. The simulation results indicated that a relatively high desorption rate of neutral gas resulted in a higher expansion velocity for the cathode plasma. This work extends our knowledge and understanding of cathode plasma dynamics in high-current MITLs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative and positive ions crossing the anode-cathode gap of a magnetically insulated transmission line (MITL) can cause non-negligible current loss and energy deposition on the electrodes, which may lead to the formation of anode plasma and the growth of cathode plasma. Furthermore, gap closure could occur due to the expansion of cathode plasma and anode plasma. In this paper, a model for magnetic insulation of both negative ion flow and positive ion flow is developed. The operating voltage V of the MITL is expressed as a function of the total current I0 and the boundary current Ib. The total current and the boundary current of the MITL are derived at saturated and self-limited flows, respectively. In addition, particle-in-cell simulations are implemented for the validation of the theoretical model. The thickness and density of the magnetically insulated ion layers are analyzed, and an empirical expression for space charge factor g is obtained through simulation results. This work extends the understanding of magnetically insulated ion flow in MITLs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The curved structure of a coaxial magnetically insulated transmission line (MITL) causes it to generate a nonuniform azimuthal magnetic field, which can disturb the electron flow and lead to a higher current loss when compared with a straight MITL. In this paper, the current loss mechanism and nonuniformity of the azimuthal magnetic field inherent to curved MITLs are investigated using theoretical analysis and particle-in-cell simulations. Results show that the critical current for magnetic insulation of the curved MITL increases with nonuniformity of the azimuthal magnetic field. The magnitude of the azimuthal magnetic field of the curved MITL can be described by a cosine distribution, lower in the outer region and higher in the inner region of the curved MITL. Nonuniformity of the azimuthal magnetic field decreases as electron current increases. Finally, an empirical expression relating to the structural parameters of curved MITLs is obtained for nonuniformity of the azimuthal magnetic field, which can be used to estimate the critical current for magnetic insulation in curved MITLs. This work extends the understanding of magnetic insulation in curved coaxial transmission lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various systems can be modeled as a point-like explosion of ionized debris into a magnetized, collisionless background plasma—including astrophysical examples, active experiments in space, and laser-driven laboratory experiments. Debris streaming from the explosion parallel to the magnetic field may drive multiple resonant and non-resonant ion–ion beam instabilities, some of which can efficiently couple the debris energy to the background and may even support the formation of shocks. We present a large-scale hybrid (kinetic ions + fluid electrons) particle-in-cell simulation, extending hundreds of ion inertial lengths from a 3D explosion, that resolves these instabilities. We show that the character of these instabilities differs notably from the 1D equivalent by the presence of unique transverse structure. Additional 2D simulations explore how the debris beam length, width, density, and speed affect debris–background coupling, with implications for the generation of quasi-parallel shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the results of tests on a 0.76-TW linear transformer driver (LTD) module for Z-pinch research are presented for the first time. Ten LTD cavities, each generating a 1-MA/90-kV pulse on a matched load, were connected in series with a magnetically insulated voltage adder to drive the e-beam diode. Three inner stalks with different radii were tested, and the results indicate that the output parameters of the ten cavities are sensitive to the cathode radii. As an intermediate step, a high-current pulse with 832 kV/912 kA/130 ns was obtained on the e-beam diode. To date, this is the maximum power generated directly by a fast LTD with mega-ampere current output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetic reconnection is a primary driver of particle acceleration processes in space and astrophysical plasmas. Understanding how particles are accelerated and the resulting particle energy spectra are among the central topics in reconnection studies. We review recent advances in addressing this problem in nonrelativistic reconnection that is relevant to space and solar plasmas and beyond. We focus on particle acceleration mechanisms, particle transport due to 3D reconnection physics, and their roles in forming power-law particle energy spectra. We conclude by pointing out the challenges in studying particle acceleration and transport in a large-scale reconnection layer and the relevant issues to be addressed in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For nanosecond pulsed gas discharge under hundreds of kV/cm in sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), the electric field emission (EFE) effect may be the mechanism of the initial electrons. Electrode surface micro-protrusions (ESMPs) generated after discharging, would affect the discharge process under a high electric field. To investigate the effect of ESMPs on the breakdown time delay and jitter, the breakdown characteristics of different electrode materials and surface roughness are determined in this paper. Three types of electrode materials include stainless 304L, EDM-AF5 graphite, and CuW70 W-Cu alloy. The influences of stainless 304L electrodes with surface roughness coefficients of 1.6 and 0.8 on the breakdown delay and jitter are compared. After 700 discharge shots, the morphology characteristics and distributions of ESMPs are observed by a contourgraph. Based on the statistical results of ESMPs and EFE theory, the relationship between the electric field of EFE and ESMPs can be calculated. In addition, the effective electron rates of negative ion detachment (NID) are estimated. The experimental and calculation results indicate that the initial electrons are mainly produced by the EFE effect. When the pressure is below 0.5 MPa, the NID effect is limited and the breakdown time delay and jitter are dependent on the height to radius ratio and distributions of ESMPs. Once the pressure exceeds 0.5 MPa, the NID effect will be significant and the influence of ESMPs can be neglected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetic reconnection in strongly magnetized astrophysical plasma environments is believed to be the primary process for fast energy release and particle energization. Currently, there is strong interest in relativistic magnetic reconnection in that it may provide a new explanation for high-energy particle acceleration and radiation in strongly magnetized astrophysical systems. We review recent advances in particle acceleration and reconnection physics in the magnetically dominated regime. Much discussion is focused on the physics of particle acceleration and power-law formation as well as the reconnection rate problem. In addition, we provide an outlook for studying reconnection acceleration mechanisms and kinetic physics in the next step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the key components of an electromagnetic pulse simulator, the peaking capacitor is coaxially constructed with a laminate structure utilizing alternative thin metal rings and polymer film dielectrics, which is designed as a part of the antenna. This paper presents a coaxial film capacitor with a novel structure to improve its flashover performance. First, the relationship between the capacitance and the capacitor's structural parameters are deduced, and a theoretical basis of lengthening the polymer film dielectrics to enhance the flashover performance is discussed. Based on the theoretical analysis, two 150 pF, 3-layer coaxial film capacitors with different extended lengths for the polymer film dielectrics (10 and 60 mm) are designed and developed. For the capacitor with a 60 mm extended film dielectric, the polymethylmethacrylate rings are adhered to the thin metal rings to support the polymer film dielectrics using a soft adhesive. Electric field analyses show that a longer extended length could decrease the surface field at the edge of the polymer film dielectric by as much as 93%. Comparative insulation experiments show that the flashover voltage for the improved capacitor is 89.9% higher than the original one. The influence of the capacitor's polymer extensions (including the polymer supporting rings and the film dielectrics) on the radiating field of a cone antenna is analyzed numerically, and the results show that only slight changes are introduced into the radiating field. Finally, a designed 350 pF, 20-layer coaxial film capacitor with lengthened film dielectrics is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For typical Tesla transformers with open magnetic-core, a novel coaxial design of the primary side using a mechanically controlled spark gap is introduced to obtain a more compact configuration. The primary winding has several alternative ports to vary the current distribution by changing the position of the capacitor component, and the entire primary circuit is built inside the outer cylinder. For this new primary configuration, we estimate the series parameters and ohmic losses: Polypropylene film capacitors and combined metallized film capacitors are used in the verification tests, and the former capacitor exhibits a lower parasitic resistance below 10 mΩ. The ohmic losses caused by the windings and spark gap are also considered. The results of the experiments show that the voltage gain has an 8.2% drop when the parasitic resistance of C1 increased from 10 mΩ to 24 mΩ, and we deduce that the contact resistance of this primary structure can be limited to below 10 mΩ according to the circuit analysis results and the verification test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a 5 Terawatt, 5 MV, 1 MA pulsed power system based on vacuum magnetic insulation is simulated by the particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation method. The system consists of 50 100-kV linear transformer drive (LTD) cavities in series, using magnetically insulated induction voltage adder (MIVA) technology for pulsed power addition and transmission. The pulsed power formation and the vacuum power flow are simulated when the system works in self-limited flow and load-limited flow. When the pulsed power system isn’t connected to the load, the downstream magnetically insulated transmission line (MITL) works in the self-limited flow, the maximum of output current is 1.14 MA and the amplitude of voltage is 4.63 MV. The ratio of the electron current to the total current is 67.5%, when the output current reached the peak value. When the impedance of the load is 3.0 Ω, the downstream MITL works in the self-limited flow, the maximums of output current and the amplitude of voltage are 1.28 MA and 3.96 MV, and the ratio of the electron current to the total current is 11.7% when the output current reached the peak value. In addition, when the switches are triggered in synchronism with the passage of the pulse power flow, it effectively reduces the rise time of the pulse current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the evolution and dynamics of anode plasmas in high-power hollow cathode diodes were studied by particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation. The simulation results show that the ion flow emitted by the anode plasma layer and the increase of the electron current caused by the ion flow will cause a significant decline in the diode impedance in a short time. In addition, the expansion of the anode plasma layer will cause the diode impedance to decrease. The PIC simulation technique is also applied to a high-power hollow cathode diode of a 1.0 MV-LTD generator for anode plasmas, and the PIC simulation results were compared with the experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface evolution for a conductor electrode under pulsed megagauss (MG) magnetic field was investigated. Stainless steel rods with 3 mm diameter were driven by 8 MA, 130 ns (10%–90%) current pulse in a series of shots on the Primary Test Stand. Experimental data from two complementary diagnostic systems and simulation results from one-dimensional magneto-hydrodynamics code reveal a transition phase for instability development. The transition, which begins as the conductor surface starts to expand, lasts about 40 ns in the pulse. It ends after the thermal plasma is formed, and striation electrothermal instability growth stops but magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor instability (MRTI) starts to develop. An expanding velocity which grows to about 2.0 km/s during the transition phase was directly measured for the first time. The threshold magnetic field for thermal plasma formation on the stainless steel surface was inferred to be 3.3 MG under a rising rate of about 66 MG/μs, and after that MRTI becomes predominant for amplitude growth in surface perturbation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extremely compact high voltage peaking capacitor is developed. The capacitor has a pancake structure with a diameter of 315 mm, a thickness of 59 mm, and a mass of 6.1 kg. The novel structural design endows the capacitor with a better mechanical stability and reliability under hundreds of kilovolts pulse voltage and an inner gas pressure of more than 1.5 MPa. The theoretical value of the capacitor self-inductance is near to 17 nH. Proved by series of electrical experiments, the capacitor can endure a high-voltage pulse with a rise time of about 20 ns, a half-width duration of around 25 ns, and an amplitude of up to 800 kV in a single shot model. When the capacitor was used in an electromagnetic pulse simulator as a peaking capacitor, the rise time of the voltage pulse can be reduced from 20 ns to less than 3 ns. The practical value of the capacitor's inductance deduced from the experimental date is no more than 25 nH.