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The primary aim of this paper is to explore the functions of the word /fard/ in Iraqi and Khuzestani Arabic. The study is based on the analysis of various text corpora and the elicitation of further examples from native speakers of the varieties investigated. The analysis of these data has shown that /fard/ is a polyfunctional item. Its various functions are the result of several grammaticalization processes. In the first stage, the noun “individual” has become a quantifier that expresses singularity. From this stage it developed into an intensifier, a marker of approximation and the scalar adverb “only.” It has been demonstrated that, from its use as a presentative marker, it developed toward an indefinite article. In contrast to the definite article, which is a grammatical category in nearly every variety of Arabic, the use of an indefinite article is rarely found in spoken Arabic. In Iraqi and Khuzestani Arabic, /fard/ is an indefinite article that possesses a wide range of applications and only a limited set of constraints. Its use, however, remains optional to a very high degree. Its main function is that of a presentative—i.e., introducing a new referent into a discourse. In addition, it also functions as an individuation marker, as a marker for expressing the speaker’s epistemic status (knowledge/ignorance) regarding a referent, and indicating free choice from a set of potential referents. Related to this last function is its use as a mitigating device in imperatives and polite requests.

Acknowledgements Notes on Contributors Introduction: Embodied Lexicon and the 'Head' Iwona Kraska-Szlenk Part 1 Comparative Studies 1 'Head(s)' in Portuguese: the Metaphor in European and Brazilian Portuguese Aleksandra Wilkos and Mateus Cruz Maciel de Carvalho 2 On the Lexeme 'Head' in Zamucoan Luca Ciucci 3 What the Grammaticalization of 'Head' Reveals about the Semantic Structure of a Language? Zygmunt Frajzyngier 4 'Head' in Some Non-Bantu Languages of the Oriental Province of DR Congo Helma Pasch 5 "Head" as a Link of Embodiment in Chinese Yongxian Luo 6 From Head to Toe: How Languages Extend the Head to Name Body Parts Kelsie Pattillo 7 Metonymic Extensions of the Body Part 'Head' in Mental and Social Domains Iwona Kraska-Szlenk Part 2 Case Studies 8 The Conceptualization of HEAD among the Hausa Based on Verbal and Nonverbal Representation Izabela Will 9 Semantics of Amharic ras 'Head' Abinet Sime 10 'Head' Idioms in Turkish: Contrasts and Correlations Filiz Mutlu, Aysel Kapan, Ali Yagiz Sen, Hilal Yildirim-Gundogdu and Asli Goeksel 11 'He Cracked His Head Feverishly': Conceptualizations of HEAD and THINKING in Hungarian Judit Baranyine Koczy 12 Semantic Extensions of tatini 'Her Head' and tati 'His Head' in Deni (Arawa) Mateus Cruz Maciel de Carvalho 13 Wulaya 'Head' in Yanyuwa Alice Gaby and John Bradley Index

Despite a lack of evidence for the practice of sacred prostitution in the ancient Middle East, scholars have continued to understand the wordqdešɔin Hosea 4:14 to denote a female officiant who performed sexual acts in a cultic setting. This article argues that the understanding of theqdešɔas a cultic prostitute has appealed to interpreters for over two millennia because the Hebrew word has a semantic range that includes both female cultic functionaries and prostitutes. The lexeme denotes a class of women who are employed outside of the patrimonial estate, including priestesses or prostitutes (but never both at the same time). When the prophet indicts the Israelites for sacrificing with qdešot, he deploys a pun that strengthens his metaphor of Israel as a wayward woman.

The Hebrew lexeme taḥaš, which designates one of the materials of the outer layer of the priestly tent sanctuary, has puzzled interpreters for hundreds of years. This article surveys the recent discussion of the term and provides evidence in favor of a parallel to the Akkadian duḫšum/tuḫšum. So far overlooked in this discussion is the functional parallel between the use of Hebrew taḥaš for the covering of the tent sanctuary and the use of tuḫšum at Mari for the covering of a large, royal tent structure (ḫurpatum). Buttressing the phonological and functional parallel between Hebrew taḥaš and Mari duḫšum/tuḫšum are a series of other terminological connections between Mari’s ḫurpatum, the tent-dwelling of Ugaritic ʾIlu, and the Israelite priestly tent sanctuary.

In this paper I reexamine three expressions in Amos’ visions: לָרִב בָּאֵשׁ (Am 7:4), אֲנָךְ (Am 7:7-8), and קֵץ/קַיץִ (Am 8:1-2). I suggest to understand לָרִב בָּאֵשׁ in Am 7:4 ‘to inundate with fire’ postulating the root ריבii(parallel to רבב) ‘to bring much water’, etymologically and literarily connecting this expression to the Meribah account. For אֲנךְָ in Am 7:7-8 I substantiate the word-play that incorporates an allusion to 1cs personal pronoun, investigating the involved dialectal Northern Hebrew phenomena in their wider North-West Semitic context: the final vowel reduction in *ˀanākuand the phonetic shiftsō>ū>ī, á>o, andś>š. For the word-play קֵץ/קַיִץ in Am 8:1-2 I elaborate on its phonetic properties, concentrating on the word-final gemination and the short vowel quality in the lexeme *qiṣṣ. The latter case allows postulating the typological path of the corresponding phonetic development: the diphthong contraction →í>ēin an originally open syllable →í//éallophonism in a double closed syllable → final gemination simplification. As a result, several isoglosses that explicitly separate between Northern and Southern dialects of Hebrew are firmly established: the shorter form of 1cs pronounˀanōkvsˀanōkīand the “Phoenician shift”. The conclusion is that the Northern dialect is close to the Canaanite innovative center, while the Southern dialect represents the conservative periphery.

This paper offers an analysis of the Lydian nominal paradigm of i-mutation. The main goal is to uncover the accentual type of this paradigm. This is achieved, first, by analyzing the phonological outcome of the endings and, second, by identifying the position of the accent within each given lexeme. In the end, a barytone character is posited for this paradigm. This observation has consequences regarding the original distribution of i-mutation in Anatolian and its chronological spread.

This article seeks to establish that the ‘strong’ meaning of the verbal forms derived from שנא in the Genesis Apocryphon and the book of Daniel is of a dramatic, even violent, change; when used to denote a ‘change’ in mind or countenance, this refers to mental anguish, and so opens up a hitherto overlooked connection between this Jewish literature and the Hellenistic science of physiognomy. The semantic input of this Hellenistic context is important for a better understanding of the range of this Aramaic lexeme, and of the other lexeme employed to denote a ‘change’ by these two early Jewish texts, חלף. Thus this article will attempt to demonstrate the importance of the wider cultural context in which lexemes articulate their meaning.

The paper deals with two Middle West-Iranian lexemes, namely ‘copy, replica’ and ‘contract’, borrowed into some adjacent languages, such as Classical Armenian and Aramaic. The existing explanations are reviewed, and a new etymology for either word is suggested on the basis of Akkadian source forms, namely šiknu(m) ‘original’ and šiṭru(m) ‘written document’ respectively, built in the same Iranian morphological pattern. For the first lexeme the transcription paččīn instead of the commonly accepted *pačēn is proposed, and the phonetics of the range of the loan forms in Hebrew, Old Aramaic and Classical Armenian is explained.

The four canonical gospels present the consistent sequence ἀλέκτωρ + φωνέω for the cock’s crow in Peter’s actual denial and its prediction by Jesus. The compound ἀλεκτοροφωνία in Mark 13:35 is the only alternative lexeme for the cock’s crow and, due to its single occurrence in the Greek Bible a hapax legomenon. In this study I follow up the variae lectiones in Matt 26:34 and 26:75, where the compound is backed by considerable and distinguished textual witnesses. By means of a validation of the attestation of these variae lectiones in the established critical editions of the New Testament it will be shown that their representation is often insufficient and incomplete. A speculative scenario will be created on the basis of the quality of the attestation of ἀλεκτοροφωνία in Matt 26:34 and 26:75 in order to make the compound plausible as the original reading. In addition, all this relativizes the importance and validity of the term hapax legomenon.

The article examines different attestations of the Old Iranian lexeme *sikā- “sand, stone, break stone” in the Iranian place names. The author attempts to present a tentative list of place-names (river names) having as one of their components the regular reflex of the above-mentioned Old Iranian proto-form (i.e. sī < sīγ, or səγ). Among the mountain names with the same lexeme there is only one reliable form

The paper presents a study of several hydronyms and place-names (derived from rivernames) in the southwestern zone of the Caspian Sea, in Gilan and adjoining areas in the province of Ardabil in Iran. The analysis reveals lexical units of highly archaic nature in the geographic nomenclature of the mentioned region, especially among river-names. This concerns not only the forms of Iranian origin, but also those bearing obvious traits of a pre-Iranian linguistic substrate. Particularly, the author postulates such origin for a widespread hydro-toponymic lexeme meaning, as she thinks, “reed” (or “cane”), a characteristic attribute of the local landscape.

Jerome’s interest in provinding Exempla for his readers in his letters and the Vitae Patrum extended to his translations and revisions of canonical Books—Ruth 4,11; Deut 29,22(23), Esth 1,18; Zech 13,4—and to a book he considered non-canonical (Tob 2,12). Jerome related the noun exemplum to a variety of lexemes in the semantic field of obiecta aversionis. His views regarding the regulation of female behavior played a role in the plus in Esth 1,18. He viewed Ruth to some extent as a positive exemplum for his female audience, although he likely had conflicted feelings about the fact that the widow remarried. Although the lexeme does not occur in the Book of Judith, his predilections for Judith as exemplum of the chaste and virtuous widow was the impetus for the pluses in Jdt 16,26 and 10,4.

Le verbe tr3ɨ en khmer présente une très grande diversité d'emplois. Cet article propose une étude "unitaire" de tr3ɨ. Sur la base d'une description systématique des cinq grandes classes d'emplois ("nécessité", "conformité", "détrimental", "passif" et "toucher"), il est possible de mettre en évidence un ensemble de contraintes et de régularités d'ordre syntaxique et sémantique qui rendent compte de la diversité des emplois du verbe tr3ɨ tout en conservant l'identité sémantique stable du verbe.

This article is dedicated to the interpretation of the Avestan razura- "forest, grove", its Middle Persian derivation razūr, and the related place-name, the so called "White Forest" (Avestan Spaēitita razura-, and Middle Persian Arus-razūr and Spēd-razūr). The author investigates all passages in the Avestan and Middle Iranian texts, where the lexeme is found. The Avestan razura- is attested predominantly in the Young Avestan texts (Aban Yasht, Den Yasht, Zamyad Yasht) and in Videvdat, while as a component of the place-name it may be found in Ram Yasht. In most cases, it is mentioned in connection with war campaigns and important battles of the ancient Iranians with their enemies. More detailed accounts on "White Forest" have been preserved in the Middle Persian sources, such as Ayādgār ī Zarērān (the Pahlavi text of Parthian origin), Bundahishn, and in the apocalyptic writing Zand ī Vohuman Yasn. The battle of king Vishtasp with the Khyons is held near this "White Forest", Arusrazūr, which is also mentioned in Zand ī Vohuman Yasn as Spēd-razūr. Evidently, this place had a great importance for the ancient Iranians; Ilya Gershevitch called it, following Ram Yasht, "the Pan-Iranian forest"; for Mary Boyce it was "the forest of All-Aryans".

Up to three times, the LXX version of Canticles (iv 1, 3; vi 7) reads σιωπησσιζ ('silence') as a translation equivalent of the Hebrew lexeme smh ('veil'). This article aims at establishing whether this enigmatic equivalence is due to mistranslation or to a conscious, if obscure, rendering, by closely analysing the nature of the lexemes in question. Although there are strong arguments in favour of the former scenario, the matter cannot be resolved with any definiteness. Symmachus' apparently similar translation in Isa. xlvii 2 (τò σιωπηλóν for smh) is shown to be unrelated to the puzzling equivalence established in LXX Canticles. The article concludes with some thoughts on the lexicographical treatment of translation-specific lexical items such as σιωπησιζ.

By the mid-1970s, more than seventy years had elapsed since the pioneering achievements of D.H. Muller, the first to uncover for Western scholarship the inexhaustible treasures of the Soqotri language and its oral literature. This chapter presents a list of three glossed texts namely: the moon bears witness against the murderers, a crazy tourist, and a woman separating two brothers. Lexical headings display the same quadripartite structure as the corpus itself: from left to right, the Soqotri lexeme in Semitological transcription, the English translation, the Soqotri lexeme in the Arabic-based script and, finally, the Arabic translation.Keywords: Arabic translation; D.H. Muller; glossed texts; oral literature; Soqotri lexeme

This chapter elaborates on the idea that reference to and quantification over individual concepts under Aloni's conceptual covers can help model unspecific readings of descriptions and quantifiers combining with missing , in particular, by defending a naive analysis. In addition to the readings that Zimmermann (seriously) considers, there is the reading of be missing sentences with singular indefinite subjects a P where one infer that no P is there. The chapter concedes that this forces one to supplement be missing with a property reading parallel to the proper treatment of opacity in certain verbs according to Zimmermann. In other languages, one find verbs with a partial overlap with miss , be missing , and (be) lack(ing) ; both this third English lexeme and the cross-linguistic facts are worthy of future attention. The chapter concludes that the idea of using individual concepts in the analysis of things that are missing looks like a viable one. Keywords: English lexeme; naive analysis; Zimmermann's beamwork

Indefinite proforms are words that are used to refer to non-identifiable referents. All are listed in the form of "Table" and are treated separately in various sections. The indefinite proform 'any, whichever, whatever' modifies postposed nouns with any semantic role with a more restricted use. The indefinite 'to wherever' replaces a direction adjunct. These indefinite proforms (something, somewhere, someone) are all derived from their respective interrogatives by means of the indefinite phrasal enclitic. The relational/derelational/attributive/adverbial morpheme has many functions, some of which are more productive than others. None of these seem to fit the lexeme 'whoever' very well. The proform 'anybody' is opaque for speakers of Atong, the indefinite enclitic is easily recognized. The proform is composed of the lexeme 'all, everything, everybody' and the mobilitative enclitic making this a transparent lexeme meaning 'everywhere'. This proform refers to both a location and a direction depending on the verb.Keywords: Atong; indefinite proforms; phrasal enclitic; semantic role

In this chapter, the author dedicates the lexical study to a lover of lexicography. From its first publication, Ake Sjoberg has shown much interest in the Ugu-mu lexical series. Since the ear is the orifice of wisdom as already pointed out by a fellow Scandinavian, Thorkild Jacobsen in 1946, there is no more appropriate organ to investigate. The ePSD 5 lists two lexemes with the meaning 'ear': gestu and gizal. For the lexeme gestu four logographic writings are given: PI, GIS.PI, GIS.TUG 2 . PI and GIS.PI.TUG 2 whereas for the lexeme gizal two logographic writings are given: GIS.TUG 2 .PI.SIR.SILA 3 and NU 11 .SILA 3 . The instances of these logographic writings show a skewed distribution. Therefore, it is essential to trace the development in the third millennium of the writing of lexemes chronologically and semantically in order to understand the logographic composition of the word 'ear' in Sumerian. Keywords: Ake Sjoberg; ear; GIS.PI.TUG 2 ; Sumerian; Thorkild Jacobsen; Ugu-mu; wisdom

Starting from personal names with theophoric element ia-a-wa in late Babylonian texts it is argued in this paper that the divine name Yahwe is a nominal lexeme of the qatl-pattern. While its basic form is *yahw (>yahu), there existed also a prolonged from with case marker -a, written with as a mater lectionic (i.e. the tetragrammaton YHWH). In support of this view other material is presented showing the preservation of a case maker -a in early 1st Millenium B.C. Hebrew and Moabite. In this connection fhe form srth (for Asherah) as attested in several early Hebrew inscriptions (e.g. Kuntillet Ajrud) is analysed in the same way, with representing the case marker -a. The formula l-yhwh...w-l-srth is thus translated as (I bless you) to (= in the name of) Yahwe... and Ashirta. The preserved ending -a is interpreted in early West-Semitic proper names, especially within syllabically attested (Amorite and Amarna) personal names.

The lexeme σχο νοsigma 'reed, rush' in the LXX denotes a 'pen' once and translates twice the name 'Shittim'. Although some explanation is needed for these instances, they are explicable translations. In Jer. xviii 15, however, the glosses 'reed' or 'measure' do not make sense in the context, and 'way' is probably to be preferred. This would be a metaphorical application of the meaning 'measure', popular in Hellenistic geographers. The same meaning also makes sense of the context of LXX Ps. cxxxviii 3, where 'bed' is the normal gloss suggested. The meaning 'bed' is derived from Schleusner and Brenton, and, although it is not attested elsewhere in Greek, has been adopted by the Supplements to LSJ and even incorrectly categorized there under a gloss with a different denotation. The interpretation of σχο νοsigma as 'way' is supported by similar metaphorical uses in the LXX for words from the semantic field of 'way'.

The paper examines the historical and literary characteristics of mul "wine" in Persian poetry. Unlike may, which is a wide-spread term denoting "wine" in New Persian, mul is never employed in the writings of many outstanding representatives of Persian poetry—from the early period until Rūdakī and Daqīqī. The first occurrences of this lexeme are attested in the Shahnameh by Firdousū.

This paper is an attempt to trace the origin of an interesting Kurdish lexeme with a high occurrence frequency, which is usually perceived by the neighbouring Armenians as sort of a shibboleth for characterising the Kurds. The author rejects the possible connections of this lexeme with the Oriental Caucasian *läg-"man, slave".

This volume offers a multi-disciplinary examination into the Hebrew of the Second Temple period as reflected in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ben Sira, inscriptions, Greek and Latin transcriptions, the Samaritan oral and reading traditions of the Pentateuch, and Mishnaic Hebrew.

This chapter covers a morpheme, faex. Pittayaporn reconstructs *mwajC for the lexeme Proto-Tai (PT) and Proto-Kam-Tai (PKT) *mwǝi. It gives a list of all characters used for faex in the traditional texts from all locations. The chapter also describes the classification of characters used to write faex 'wood, tree' under different phonetic series. The information about Chinese and Chữ Nom connections are given in tabular form: 1) which characters exist in Chinese and which are Zhuang inventions; 2) Early Middle Chinese (EMC) and Late Middle Chinese (LMC) reconstructions; 3) which characters exist in Chữ Nom writing. The chapter contains maps which show the main graphic representations of the word and dialect survey data and other information on local pronunciations. Finally, the chapter presents a phonological analysis of characters used to write faex 'wood, tree'.Keywords:Faex; Proto-Kam-Tai (PKT); Proto-Tai (PT)

Yongxian Luo points out that the lexeme has pan-Tai roots, being related to Thai and Lao law,Dehong lau,Phake lau,White and Black Tai lau,Lungming naw,Nung lau,Yay naw and Fengshan nau. This chapter gives a listing of all characters used for naeuz or equivalents in the traditional texts from all locations. It also lists the locations where each character or character variant is found. The chapter reviews graphic and phonetic analysis of characters used to write naeuz 'to say'. It presents characters that exist in Chinese and Zhuang inventions; early middle Chinese (EMC) and late middle Chinese (LMC) reconstructions; characters exist in Chữ N?m writing and pronunciation in H?n-Việt.Keywords:Chinese; early middle Chinese (EMC); late middle Chinese (LMC); naeuz; Zhang

This chapter examines the possibility of an indigenous lexeme with a copied foreign phonological form, which may be considered to accommodate both foreign and indigenous properties coexistently. It argues that the vocabulary of Eynu remains in the Uyghur pedigree, though it accepts Persian phonological forms as free variants besides original Uyghur forms. Such symbiosis of foreign and indigenous properties within a single linguistic element exemplified by Eynu, a Uyghurbased secret language. It examines the code-copying process by which Eynu was formed as a distinct linguistic variety of Uyghur. What has been brought into focus is the linguistic characteristics of Eynu vocabulary, i. e, interchangeability, calquing in idioms, derivation of transitive and intransitive verbs, and polysemy based on homophony. The case of Eynu may be extreme, since foreign influence seems so superficial that the original Uyghur lexicon remains intact. Keywords:copying process; Eynu; Foreign phonological; Idioms; indigenous properties; secret language; Uyghur

This paper advances the hypothesis that translation equivalents may be employed to cast light on the semantic network of a lexeme in its original language. The lexeme investigated is through, which is commonly taken to have the prototypical sense of ‘entrance-traversal-exit’. Some recent research, however, has indicated that various instrumental senses are more common in actual usage. The particular question addressed in this paper is how the various senses of through are related to each other. The data consist of all 696 tokens of through in the English language original texts in the English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus. These are first sorted into various semantic classes using normal corpus linguistic methods. The translations into Norwegian of the various senses are then examined with an emphasis on the similarities and differences between them. The basic hypothesis is that the senses that are translated in similar ways in a particular language are felt to be more closely related by users of that language than senses that are translated in very different ways. Restricted as it is to translations into one language, the study does not contain enough data to test this hypothesis, but the evidence presented suggests that it may be worth exploring in greater detail.

This chapter examines the semantic development of two English mind -words from the Old and Middle English periods. It focuses on the question of how mod , the central Old English lexeme meaning "mind," gradually changed its meaning to become Modern English mood , and how the Old English gemynd (Middle English minde ) - at that time signifying "memory" - took the meaning of the Modern English mind sometime in the Middle English period. Recently, there has been quite a lot of interest in the Anglo- Saxon mind-vocabulary. Nevertheless, this is the first study that aims at giving a comprehensive picture of the semantic development of these two words through 700 years of the English language, comprising Middle English, as well. In order to find out how these lexemes changed their meanings in this time-span, the author compiled a tailor-made corpus of Old and Middle English texts during his research. Keywords: Anglo- Saxon mind-vocabulary; English mind -words; Middle English periods; Modern English mood ; Old English periods

This chapter discusses the distributional and paradigmatic data, and the paradigmatic relations and semes of 28 Lexemes. It also provides synthetic definition of each Lexeme. Keywords:lexeme; paradigmatic data; paradigmatic relations

This chapter talks about 28 Lexemes under each lexemes Distributional Data, Standard Narrative Hebrew (SBH1), Standard Poetic Hebrew (SBH2), Standard Juridical-Cultic-Hebrew (SBH2), Sectarian Language of Qumran (QH4), Late Poetic Hebrew (LBH2), Sectarian Language of Qumran (QH4), Sectarian Language of Qumran (QH4), Juridical-Cultic Language of Qumran (QH3), Ben Sira Hebrew (BSH), Archaic Biblical Hebrew (ABH) are discussed in the chapter. Keywords:Lexeme; Standard Narrative Hebrew (SBH1); Standard Poetic Hebrew (SBH2)

This chapter deals with some unique Greek lexemes that have been used by the translator and that can perhaps provide insight into the approach this translator adopted towards his subject matter and consequently into the translation itself. It concentrates on the hapax legomena which is located in each chapter of LXX Proverbs. Depending on how the passage is dated, it is possible that the translator could actually have borrowed the lexeme from classical Greek sources. In this regard it should be remembered that this lexeme does occur as a plus in this passage, which must mean that he had to go to some lengths to obtain an appropriate Greek rendering. The Hebrew lexeme has the nuances of "pass through, transgress" as part of its semantic field. The translator therefore interpreted in the light of the whole context, especially verse 9.Keywords: classical Greek sources; Greek lexemes; hapax legomena; LXX Proverbs