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The synthetic analysis of several pollen records from sub-Mediterranean lowland Pre-Pyrenean regions evidences expansion of forests during the Early Holocene in Northeastern Iberia and the establishment of dense deciduous broadleaf forests during the Holocene Climate Optimum. Pollen records show the broadleaf deciduous forests resilience against cooling phases during the Mid-Holocene period, with slight regressions of oak woodlands and expansion of conifers or xerophytic taxa contemporary to some cooling episodes (i.e. 8.2 and 7.2 kyr cal. BP). Major vegetation changes influenced by climate change occurred in the transition to the Late Holocene, in terms of the start of a succession from broadleaf deciduous forests to evergreen sclerophyllous woodlands. The lack of evidence of previous occupation seems to support the Neolithisation of the NE Iberian Peninsula as a result of a process of migration of farming populations to uninhabited or sparsely inhabited territories. In that context, remarkable changes in vegetation were recorded from 7.3 kyr cal. BP onwards in the Lake Banyoles area, where the establishment of permanent farming settlements caused the deforestation of oak woodlands. In La Garrotxa region, short deforestation episodes affecting broadleaf deciduous forests, together with expansion of grasslands and presence of Cerealia-t were documented in the period 7.4–6.0 kyr cal. BP. Finally, in the coastal area, where less evidence of Early Neolithic occupations is recorded, evidence of Neolithic impact is reflected in the presence of Cerealia-t in 6.5–6.2 kyr cal. BP, but no strong human transformation of landscape was carried out until more recent chronologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For several decades, conventional pollen analyses have been supplemented with information provided by Non-Pollen Palynomorphs (NPP). Generally, the taxa included in this group are microalgae, fungi, insects and arachnid's chitinous remains, as well as plant debris and other organic palynomorphs of undetermined origin, that are valuable tools with which to characterise the original strata as well as the local environmental features that influence deposit formation processes. In this work, we present the results of the NPP analysis of the archaeological and palaeontological deposits of Sima del Elefante, Gran Dolina and Galería, all of which are located in the Trinchera area (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), spanning a period from 200 ka to almost 1.5 million years ago. The NPP analysis of the three deposits has provided information about the presence of decayed organic matter accumulations, erosion processes and moisture conditions. Knowledge of palynomorphs contributes to the understanding of the biological, physical and chemical dynamics that resulted in different sedimentary sequences. In almost all cases, there is a clear connection between the major stratigraphic trends established for the three deposits and the NPP assemblages identified. However, the eminently local character of the dispersion of most of the palynomorphs identified has prevented the interrelation between the three sequences analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tempo and mode of colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (IP) by Cannabis sativa , its further internal spreading and the potential cultural and environmental factors involved remain unknown. The available continental-wide European meta-analyses using pollen and archeological evidence account for only a few IP sites, insufficient for a sound assessment. This paper presents a nearly comprehensive database of almost 60 IP sites with palynological evidence of Cannabis and analyzes the corresponding spatiotemporal patterns. The first scattered records of this pollen type date from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic (150–12 kyr BP) and would have entered the IP by maritime Mediterranean or terrestrial continental pathways, or both. A first burst of introductions, probably in a cultivated form, would have occurred during the Neolithic (7–5 kyr BP) using similar paths. Human participation in these Neolithic introductions remains unclear but cannot be dismissed. A period of reduced Cannabis arrivals (mostly via maritime pathway) occurred between the Chalcolithic and the Roman Epoch (4.5–2 kyr BP), when the innermost parts of the IP were colonized (Late Bronze). A second, likely anthropogenic, introduction acceleration took place in the Middle Ages (1.5 kyr BP onward) using the Mediterranean and the continental pathways. Maximum cultivation and hemp retting activity was recorded during the Modern Ages (16th-19th centuries), coinciding with the increased demand of hemp fiber to supply the Spanish royal navy for imperial expansion and commerce. A potential link between Cannabis colonization/introduction bursts and climatic warmings has been observed that should be tested with future studies. Regional moisture variations seem to be less influential. Further efforts to enhance and improve the database used in this study are encouraged. The results of this paper should be compared with archeological and historical evidence to clarify the role of human migrations and cultural changes in the historical biogeography of Cannabis in the IP. • Cannabis entered the Iberian Peninsula (IP) as soon as ∼150 kyr BP likely by wild dispersal. • The first burst of introductions occurred in the Neolithic (7–5 kyr BP). • Spreading across the whole IP occurred the Chalcolithic-Roman periods (4.5–2 kyr BP). • An introduction acceleration took place in the Middle Age (1.5 kyr BP onward). • Maximum hemp cultivation/retting occurred in Modern Ages (16th-19th centuries). • Colonization/introduction bursts coincided with warmer climatic phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analysis of twelve samples from Bronze Age level MIR4 (3040 ± 40–3400 ± 40 BP), burnt to different degrees, has allowed to characterised the palynological content of the sedimentary facies generated by burning practices. The pollen and Non-Pollen Palynomorphs (NPP) remains have contributed to our understanding of the diagenetic factors that accompanied the accumulation dynamics. The taphonomic analysis has led to the detection of biases in the palynological record associated to diagenetic processes, mainly relating to burning activities, which would also have caused the variability in the NPPs. This alternative approach to archaeological samples has revealed the heterogenic nature of the taphonomic modifications found in samples with apparently the same origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The present paper analyses the evidence provided by three sites (Sima del Elefante, Gran Dolina, and Galería) located in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril of the Sierra de Atapuerca. These three sites are cave infillings that contain sediments deposited from approximately 1.2 Ma to 200 kyr. Pollen, herpetofauna, and small and large mammal remains are used as proxies to obtain a general picture of the environmental changes that occurred at the Sierra de Atapuerca throughout the one million-year period represented at these sites. Similarly, cultural changes are tracked analyzing the evidence of human behavior obtained from the study of several bone and lithic assemblages from these three sites. At least three periods with different cultural features, involving technology, subsistence and behavior, are determined from the available evidence. The first two periods correspond to the Mode 1 technology and Homo antecessor: the first is dated around 1.2 to 1.0 Ma and reflects opportunistic behavior both in technology and subsistence. The second period is around 800 kyr BP. Mode 1 technology is still maintained, but subsistence strategies include systematic hunting and the use of base camps. The third period is dated between 500ka and 200ka and corresponds to the Mode 2 technology and the acquisition of directional hunting and other organizational strategies by Homo heidelbergensis. A transition from Mode 2 to Mode 3 seems to appear at the end of this time-range, and may reflect the early phases of a fourth cultural change. With regard to the environment, our main conclusion is that there was an absence of extremely harsh conditions at Atapuerca throughout this time period. The presence of Mediterranean taxa was constant and the dominant landscape was a savannah-like open environment, probably with small forest patches. An alternation of Mediterranean and mesic species as the dominant component of the tree storey was induced by the climatic cycles, and steppes spread across the landscape during the drier periods. In any case, it is not possible to establish clear cut-off points separating entirely different environmental episodes. Our results show no evidence of any relationship between environmental change and cultural change at the Sierra de Atapuerca. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: El Mirador site has a sequence formed by burnt dung resulting from pastoral activities during the Bronze Age and the Neolithic period. Because there is a high sediment variation in the profile, facies descriptions were used to guide the archaeologists in their work. Paleobotanical and mineralogical analyses were used to describe and understand the formation of the facies from the MIR 4 level. Furthermore, the paleobotanical results serve to reconstruct the landscape in Atapuerca during the Bronze Age. Most seeds recovered are from Triticum aestivum/durum, but other cereals and also Leguminoseae and fruits have been identified. Charcoal analysis has yielded mainly deciduous and evergreen Quercus. Pollen analysis has revealed a low arboreal cover, with Pinus, Quercus and riverside trees. Most of the pollen record corresponds to herbs, such as Poaceae and Asteraceae. All these results indicate a mosaic of different biota with forest, pastureland and cultivated fields near the site. Most of the phytoliths come from the leaves and stems of festucoid grasses. However, there are some differences in the phytolith type and number, the amount of faecal spherulites, the mineralogical composition and the percentage of multicellular structures that indicate that not all the facies in the site have been formed in the same way. Thus, the work carried out has demonstrated that some facies are related more to agricultural activities than to pastoralism activities, and that other facies have been affected by incipient diagenetic processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Pliocene Villarroya basin fill consists of lacustrine and alluvial deposits over 100 m thick. The lacustrine deposits, up to 30 m thick, comprise three sequences. The two lower sequences consist of profundal, laminated deposits formed by mostly terrigenous facies that are overlain by charophytic carbonates and varves. The uppermost, third sequence made up of massive bioturbated mudstones corresponds to a very shallow lacustrine–palustrine environment. Bulk mineralogy comprises carbonates, clay minerals, quartz and feldspars. The carbonates are: exogenic, biogenic calcite and biogenic aragonite. Biogenic calcite constitutes ostracod shells and charophyte stem encrustations, whereas aragonite forms gastropod shells and, in some varve intervals, charophyte encrustations. The clay minerals are illite, kaolinite, palygorskite, chlorite and paragonite, which are inherited from source rocks, and smectite and interstratified clays, which are probably formed in the soils of the source area. Variations in clay mineralogy reflect the interplay between the climate, tectonic rejuvenation and the paleogeography of the basin.The pollen assemblages indicate significant variations in climate: a first phase of varying climate was followed by cool-temperate and sub-humid phases that culminated in a temperate and dry episode, which is recorded in the lower part of the second lacustrine sequence. This was succeeded by a marked warm and humid episode, which may be correlated with the Mid-Pliocene warmth about 3.0 Ma and the subsequent cooling phase, which is recorded in the upper, third sequence.In the two lower sequences (profundal lacustrine deposits), ostracods indicate oligosaline to mesosaline waters with salinity variations and some warm and Na–Cl episodes. Molluscs are characterized by hydrobiids, suggesting a salinity stress. In the upper, palustrine deposits, the ostracods and aquatic mollusc assemblages indicate fresh, cold waters. Faunal records indicate that changes in salinity do not correlate with climate, suggesting phases of significant saline inputs to the lake which were recorded in the lower first sequence and in the upper part of the second sequence.The lacustrine sequence of Villarroya record pronounced variations in climate and in the lacustrine environment. However, there are no consistent relationships between the climate conditions inferred from the pollen data and the sedimentary record of the environmental changes, showing that other factors, especially tectonics, have exerted an influence on the paleoenvironmental evolution, and on the sedimentary record of the Pliocene Villarroya lake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper assesses the landscape and management of firewood resources during the Holocene at La Garrotxa (Girona, NE Iberia), a middle mountain region (400-1600 m a.s.l.) located within a volcanic area in the Pre-Pyrenees. Anthracological and palynological data from archaeological sites and lacustrine and peat deposits in this area have been considered in an interdisciplinary approach to the landscape and use of resources. According to Early Holocene palynological data, the landscape was characterised by the progressive expansion of forests, mainly dominated by conifers (pine and juniper) and deciduous trees (oak and hazel). The Holocene Climatic Optimum led to the culmination of forest expansion, with the dominance of dense oak forests, the landscape that the first farming societies found on arrival in this area. During the Middle to Late Holocene transition ( c. 4000 cal BP), the expansion of evergreen sclerophyllous trees and the regression of broadleaf deciduous trees are recorded, in response to both climatic and anthropic causes. Deciduous Quercus and Buxus sempervirens were the most important taxa in all periods and areas, as shown in charcoal data from 26 archaeological levels. However, some other taxa had certain importance in some periods and sites. The variability observed between sites is discussed in terms of the availability of resources and the transformation of landscape evidenced in pollen records. This could explain the appearance of evergreen Quercus and other Mediterranean taxa in the Middle-Late Holocene anthracological record. The characteristics of the sites and socio-historical processes have also been considered in order to understand the use of firewood. In that sense, social necessities would have been the determining factor in planning timber and firewood procurement strategies rather than adapting to the environmental availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Level TE9c of the Sima del Elefante site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) is one of the oldest sites with evidence of human occupation in western Europe. We began excavating level TE9c in 2003, and the work there continues today. The studies of the archaeology, palaeontology and geology from this locality have provided an indispensable dataset with which to capture a picture in the scenario of the origin of humans in Europe. Based on these data, we raise and discuss several topics, such as the possible origin of the lineage of the first hominins that inhabited western Europe; their capacity to have active hunting or scavenging abilities; whether their subsistence strategies were successful; and what the environment and habitats where these hominin groups settled was like. The aim of this paper is to present the results and discussions obtained from the research team and to establish the primary features of early human occupations in southwestern Europe. Tentatively, we may conclude, based on the events recorded at TE9c, that the first humans were in the Iberian peninsula at around 1.2 Ma they used the caves of the Sierra de Atapuerca as shelters probably during their hunting activities; the cavities were surrounded by Mediterranean forest, rivers and water ponds, and varied habitats as suggested by the rich and diverse assemblage of fossils of vertebrates (fish, amphibians and reptiles, birds, large and small mammals); where humans possibly caught what they found in the surroundings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]