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We report a case of Spirometra infection in a Samar cobra (Naja samarensis) imported from the Philippines, belonging to a zoological collection in the southern United States. Under a poor post-surgical prognosis, the snake was euthanized, and at necropsy plerocercoids of a Diphyllobotriidea were found in its subcutaneous tissues and musculature. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses of the complete cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (cox1) gene of the mitochondrial DNA confirmed that the isolate belonged to the genus Spirometra and was closely related to Spirometra mansoni isolates from Asian countries (bootstrap support = 99.4%). Considering the origin and clinical history and handling of the animal, the snake probably arrived infected in America. We suggest the inclusion of diagnostic imaging in the investigation of sparganosis in research and disease surveillance protocols applied in the pre- and post-quarantine period to asymptomatic animals imported from endemic areas. [Display omitted] • Plerocercoids were found at necropsy of a captive Samar cobra. • We performed molecular characterization of specimens. • Phylogenetic analysis support identification as Spirometra mansoni. • It is likely that S. mansoni was imported along with the host. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conserving terrestrial megafauna presents distinct challenges to policymakers. Despite decades of evolving regulatory measures, wild rhinoceros populations remain threatened by illegal killing to acquire rhino horn, a valuable commodity in East Asian markets. In Africa, rhino conservation performance has varied with geography and over time. This research draws on institutional economic theories to seek plausible explanations for such variable conservation outcomes. Such theories suggest that institutional variables such as property rights profoundly influence human behaviour, leading to hypotheses that we test using comparative institutional analytic methods. Our inquiry affirms that blanket trade restrictions do not account for local conservation success and that other institutional factors appear more relevant. We find that positive overall conservation outcomes correlate with greater institutional diversity within countries, notably those that enable non-state actors to play a meaningful role in rhino management. Our research further suggests that strengthening institutions through decentralization is a sensible conservation strategy for rhinos. However, a specific case study of the economics of white rhino ownership in South Africa reveals that this approach is not considered a panacea for conservation as it raises concerns over potential domestication. We conclude with recommendations for policy—notably, to avoid recentralization—and further research. • Facing economic challenges, African rhino conservation performance has been variable. • Comparative institutional analysis provides plausible explanations for such variation. • Countries with institutional diversity perform best at rhino conservation. • Trade restrictions yield ambiguous results and are outperformed by decentralization. • Governments play a vital policy-guiding role but are ineffective acting alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greater access to the Internet has boosted the online pet trade and especially enabled the trade in niche-targeted groups, such as venomous species. Despite their fearsome reputation, an array of venomous animals, such as snakes, spiders and scorpions arise interest among pet hobbyists, which exposes owners, sellers, and others involved in their transport and maintenance to potentially serious accidents by envenomation. To assess the potential risk to human health posed by the trade and ownership of venomous pet snakes, we examined social media posts trading or portraying native and exotic venomous species as pets (Facebook™ and YouTube™) and official seizures in Brazil between 2015 and 2020. In addition, we recorded all venomous snakebite events occurring in the country during the same period from the Brazilian Ministry of Health database. We compiled 114,931 venomous snakebite events resulting in over 600 human deaths. Bothrops spp. and Crotalus spp. were responsible for 86% and 10% of these events. We recorded 241 individual venomous snakes kept as pets of at least 16 species (seven native and nine non-native). The taxa with higher numbers of snakebites were also those most often kept as pets. Venomous pet snakes were sold at low prices, US$ 71.70 ± 18.44 on average. Our findings highlight a dangerous market, given the similarity of taxa raised as pets and those causing snakebites, combined with low availability of anti-venom for exotic species in Brazil. Additionally, several of the venomous pet snakes recorded are invasive species in many countries. Trade in venomous snakes is prohibited in Brazil, but the law is not well-enforced. To curb this illegal market and discourage consumer demand, we suggest that tougher penalties for sellers and owners should be considered, along with the development of awareness campaigns on the consequences of the snakebite injuries and the lack of antivenoms. Image 1 • Brazil recorded over 100,000 snakebite events between 2015 and 2019. • Despite being illegal, 16 venomous snake species are traded as pets in Brazil, seven native and nine non-native species. • It is still impossible to determine which fraction of snakebites reported was caused by pet snakes. • The main species kept as pets are also the most reported species in snakebite events. • Awareness campaigns on the injuries from snakebites and the public health issue of owning venomous snakes as pets are urgent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zoonosis-based epidemics are inevitable unless we revisit our relationship with the natural world, protect habitats, and regulate wildlife trade, including live animals and non-sustenance products. To prevent future zoonoses, governments must establish effective legislation addressing wildlife trade, protection of habitats, and reduction of the wildlife–livestock–human interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The majority of public sentiment expressed on Twitter and TikTok towards the ownership and trade of exotic pets was positive. • Whether people perceive exotic pet trade as negative, neutral, or positive is associated with the class of animal. • Social media users expressed little awareness of the challenges associated with exotic pet trade, including legality. • Social media appears to normalise and facilitate the trade and ownership of native and non-native wild animals. The live trade in wild animals can increase the risk of escape of exotic animals, introduce invasive species, spread zoonotic diseases, over-exploit wild populations, and harm animal welfare. Trade in exotic pets is a particularly understudied issue in Canada. While Canadians generally have pro-environmental attitudes, it is unclear whether this extends to the trade in exotic animals. With most Canadians on social media, we aimed to use Natural Language Processing of social data to examine public sentiment towards exotic pet trade in Canada. We analysed 9,274 posts on Twitter (now 'X') about exotic pets between 2012 and 2022, and 150,236 comments from 2568 TikTok videos showing exotic pets from 50 unique Canadian accounts. We found that social media users demonstrate markedly positive attitudes towards the live trade in reptiles and amphibians, mammals, birds, and arachnids and insects, even on TikTok videos showing poor animal care and questionable legality. We propose a conceptual framework for how exotic pet influencers directly and indirectly contribute to increased demand for exotic pets through opinion leadership, sharing information on where to buy exotic pets, and normalising exotic pet ownership. We suggest that it is important to raise public awareness among social media users about the challenges associated with wildlife trade, including animal welfare considerations, and the links between exotic pet trade and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trade in primates as pets is a global enterprise and as access to the Internet has increased, so too has the trade of live primates online. While quantifying primate trade in physical markets is relatively straightforward, limited insights have been made into trade via the Internet. Here we followed a three-pronged approach to estimate the prevalence and ease of purchasing primates online in countries with different socioeconomic characteristics. We first conducted a literature review, in which we found that Malaysia, Thailand, the USA, Ukraine, South Africa, and Russia stood out in terms of the number of primate individuals being offered for sale as pets in the online trade. Then, we assessed the perceived ease of purchasing pet primates online in 77 countries, for which we found a positive relationship with the Internet Penetration Rate, total human population and Human Development Index, but not to Gross Domestic Product per capita or corruption levels of the countries. Using these results, we then predicted the levels of online primate trade in countries for which we did not have first-hand data. From this we created a global map of potential prevalence of primate trade online. Finally, we analysed price data of the two primate taxa most consistently offered for sale, marmosets and capuchins. We found that prices increased with the ease of purchasing primates online and the Gross Domestic Product per capita. This overview provides insight into the nature and intricacies of the online primate pet trade and advocates for increased trade regulation and monitoring in both primate range and non-range countries where trade has been substantially reported. • We conducted a literature review on online primate trade and a global survey of the ease of purchasing primates online • From literature data, Malaysia, Thailand, and the USA stood out in terms of records of pet primates traded online • From our modelling, North America, South Africa, Russia, and Southeast Asia were hotspots for the ease of online purchase of primates • The ease of purchasing primates was positively related to country's Human Development Index and Internet Penetration Rate • The expansion of the internet-based sales highlights the need for assessing trade impacts and increasing regulation of trade in primates [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increasing pressure from wildlife trade, conservation efforts must balance deficiencies in distribution data for species (the Wallacean shortfall) with the risk of increasing accessibility of locality for collectors. The Golden Kaiser-I-Hind (Teinopalpus aureus Mell) is an iconic butterfly restricted to Southeast Asia, popular in trade markets but lacking in ecological and conservation information. We compiled occurrence records and used them to assess multiple threats of T. aureus distribution-wide and at the national level. Results of species distribution models suggest that suitable habitats of T. aureus are montane forests in mid to high elevations in Southern China, Laos and Vietnam. However, habitat networks for the species are poorly connected, with some portions of its distribution experiencing intensive deforestation and threatened by climate change. The trade assessment results showed specimens of T. aureus were available for sale with high prices, indicating potential pressure from trade markets. We also found different conservation statuses and efforts to protect T. aureus across countries; the species is under strict protection in China, moderate protection in Vietnam and has no protection in Laos. Both recorded locations and projected distribution in the three countries were poorly covered by protected areas. These results together demonstrate the importance of distribution data in conservation management of threatened species while highlighting trade-offs inherent in not making location information widely available when trade pressure is present. Finally, we strongly encourage cross-border cooperation in sharing ecological information for consistent conservation management of species under multiple threats from habitat loss, climate change and illegal wildlife trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regardless of many legal restrictions, the keeping of and trade in reptiles as pets has been increasing in Brazil over the last few years. We present an analysis of the trade and use of reptiles as pets in Brazil and discuss the implications. Data were obtained through semi-structured questionnaires given to 719 owners, who were contacted through reptile-owner groups on the social network Facebook. A total of 69 reptile species were reported as pets in Brazil, of which there were 39 snakes, 17 lizards, 12 chelonians and 1 species of crocodilian. Of the reported species, 46 are native to Brazil and 23 are exotic, including threatened species. Owners were distributed in at least 24 states, with a higher concentration in Southeast Brazil and the Federal District. Owners usually acquire animals through purchase, although prices vary and are high for some species, making reptile ownership more common among high-income individuals. Prices were affected by factors such as beauty, colour pattern, size, sex and even rarity. The keeping of reptiles as pets raises conservation concerns, as the practice directly impacts exploited populations and is a potential introduction pathway for invasive species, including exotic species that have already been recorded in natural habitats in Brazil. A thorough discussion, encompassing various stakeholders — namely, owners, traders and environmental authorities — is much needed, to address management strategies, and propose feasible solutions. Conservation and animal welfare NGOs should also be involved in this process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation biologists often use sophisticated models of population functioning to predict the levels at which harvesting of wild populations will be sustainable. We argue that this approach is not useful for species that, although abundant, are near impossible to survey cost-effectively with enough precision to gather key data to input as model parameters. Our examination of >7000 Reticulated Pythons (Malayopython reticulatus), collected for the commercial skin industry, provides extensive information on life-history traits, population size structure, sex ratio and diets across sites in Kalimantan, Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. Our data reveal many interesting divergences between populations from north vs south of the equator (e.g., in body sizes, reproductive frequencies, seasonal timing of reproduction), and a trend for snakes to be smaller from more intensively harvested sites. In combination with earlier analyses, >10,000 individuals of M. reticulatus have been dissected for information on ecological attributes (more than for any other snake species worldwide). Nonetheless, in the absence of demographic data (e.g., on underlying abundances and rates of survival and growth of free-ranging snakes), the most robust estimate of sustainability of the harvest comes from long-term trends in mean body sizes, life history traits, and offtake rates. Because mathematical models depend upon accurate estimation of abundance and demography, parameters unobtainable for these secretive, well-camouflaged reptiles, managers should prioritise gathering long term data on harvest trends instead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Concerns about poaching and trafficking have led conservationists to seek urgent responses to tackle the impact on wildlife. One possible solution is the militarisation of conservation, which holds potentially far-reaching consequences. It is important to engage critically with the militarisation of conservation, including identifying and reflecting on the problems it produces for wildlife, for people living with wildlife and for those tasked with implementing militarised strategies. This Perspectives piece is a first step towards synthesising the main themes in emerging critiques of militarised conservation. We identify five major themes: first, the importance of understanding how poaching is defined; second, understanding the ways that local communities experience militarised conservation; third, the experiences of rangers; fourth, how the militarisation of conservation can contribute to violence where conservation operates in the context of armed conflict; and finally how it fits in with and reflects wider political economic dynamics. Ultimately, we suggest that failure to engage more critically with militarisation risks making things worse for the people involved and lead to poor conservation outcomes in the long run. Highlights • Draws together key themes in the critical literature in militarisation • Shows why the expansion of militarisation needs to be challenged • Argues militarisation can have counter-productive and unjust outcomes • Indicates how militarisation can negatively affect rangers • Examines the political economy of militarisation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Conflicts over natural resource use and management often arise where groups have different goals or priorities. The media can play an important dual role in these conflicts; article content might offer insights about public opinion, whilst media may shape debates and how issues are perceived by the public and decision-makers. Wildlife farming is a contentious conservation tool attracting the attention of worldwide media, and associated conflicts among different interest groups may undermine its applicability. We investigated the media's portrayal of the Cayman Turtle Farm (CTF), a facility in the Cayman Islands which breeds green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) for human consumption, to investigate how the media presents information about wildlife farming (i.e. framing), consider its potential roles influencing conflicts and explore how it can be used for conservation conflict management. Content analysis was used to compare framing, article valence, and stakeholder representation in 634 newspaper articles from the international and local media. These media stories were framed in terms of: tourism, conflict, conservation, culture/community, management, and utilisation. International articles most often described CTF as a tourism facility. However, during a media campaign by an international animal welfare group, CTF was also often depicted as a source of controversy. Trade in turtle products was mostly debated in older articles. Local media mainly had a financial focus. Conflict framing was associated with a negative article valence, and conflict framed articles were significantly more likely to contain no conservation information. Mentions of environmental interest groups were significantly associated with negative articles, whereas academics were significantly more likely to be mentioned in positive articles. Conservationists must consider stakeholder objectives from the outset of interventions and be aware of the multiple roles the media might play. Media analysis and effectively harnessing the potential of media outlets should be considered as tools for managing conservation conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife trade can provide commercial incentives to conserve biodiversity but, if unsustainable, can also pose a threat. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) aims to ensure international trade in CITES-listed species is sustainable, legal and traceable. However, large-scale temporal and spatial patterns in wildlife trade are poorly known. We address this by analysing the CITES Trade Database: >16 million shipment records for 28,282 species, from 1975 and 2014. Over this period, the volume of reported trade in CITES-listed wildlife quadrupled, from 25 million whole-organism equivalents per year to 100 million, and the ratio of wild- to captive-sourced trade in mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates and plants declined by an order of magnitude or more. Our findings start to reveal the scale of the legal wildlife trade, shifting trade routes and sources over time and we describe testable hypotheses for the causes of these changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unsustainable trade in wildlife products both legally and illegally is a leading cause of population declines and increased extinction risk in commercially valuable species. However due to the clandestine nature of illegal trade and paucity of overarching studies of legal trade our understanding on international trade networks is patchy. We develop a gravity–underreporting modelling framework to analyse and compare: (i) data on the legal trade in mammalian, avian and reptilian products from recorded by The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and (ii) to data on the seizures of illegal products entering the USA between 2004 and 2013. We find substantial differences in the factors driving legal trade for the 3 taxonomic groups considered, indicating different drivers for different product markets. Illegal imports for all groups were associated with increasing exporter GDP. We found higher probabilities of underreporting for avian and reptile products, and in general central Africa, central Asia, Eastern Europe and Pacific Island states showed higher underreporting than other regions, indicating the existence of complex trade networks and the potential for the laundering of illegal products through legal markets. Our results show the important regional and economic trends driving wildlife trade. Our new modelling framework can also help illuminate previously unseen aspects of illegal and legal wildlife trade, which can help with the implementation of interventions to curb the impact of trade on wild populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trade regulations may be useful for conserving marine species that are suffering from overexploitation. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has emerged as an instrument to help tighten fisheries management. However, the impacts of CITES regulations have not been examined for the trade in fully marine fishes. This study used seahorses ( Hippocampus spp.), the first fully marine fishes listed in CITES Appendix II since treaty inception, as a case study. Drawing on Customs data from Taiwan and Hong Kong SAR (which cover pre-CITES periods), iterative-segmented regressions were applied to investigate changes in seahorse trade corresponding to CITES interventions. Principal component analyses were conducted to understand characteristics of seahorse source countries, and a gravity model of trade was applied to identify predictors of seahorse trade volumes. This study found that the total weight of seahorses in documented trade decreased significantly after CITES implementation, recorded trade became concentrated in fewer countries, and prices increased. Seahorse source countries were found having more fishers, demersal fish catch and general trade with China, compared to other range states. However, countries that reported no exports, unchanged export volumes or declining volumes after CITES were similar. In addition, volumes traded between two countries were found significantly higher when the two countries were closer together or when the source country had a lower per capita GDP or higher demersal catch. This study can help guide targeted actions to maximize CITES effectiveness for marine species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife trade is currently regulated mainly in terms of ‘volume’, i.e. the number of individuals taken from the wild or numbers appearing on the market in a given year. To explore the possible effects of other factors such as capture methods, variability in annual harvest, and habitat, we built and validated a demographic model for a closed population of Grey Parrots Psittacus erithacus on Príncipe, and ran 50-year simulations for the population under different harvest scenarios. There was a fine line between capture volumes being robustly sustainable (11% harvested) and dramatically unsustainable (15%). Population trajectories were highly sensitive to changes in adult survivorship, such that the inclusion of even a small number of adults among the harvest had a far greater impact than a similar number of juveniles. High annual variation in capture rate (reflecting poor national management of trade) could make the difference between sustainability and non-sustainability if quotas were set around critical harvest volumes. While these patterns may be common to large traded parrots generally, sufficient habitat and secure nest sites exist on Príncipe to render the effects of habitat loss on the island less important than in most other situations. If trade in parrots is to continue sustainably it will require reliable demographic and harvest data and must eliminate instability in quota observance (exceeded quotas are not compensated by shortfalls in other years) and, especially, the indiscriminate capture of adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is a pervasive issue that affects economic, social, regulatory and environmental systems in all ocean basins. Research on the ecological impacts of IUU fishing has been relatively underrepresented, with minimal investigation into how IUU fishing may negatively affect populations of marine megafauna, such as sea turtles. To address this knowledge gap and identify priority areas for future research and management, we evaluated IUU fishing as a threat to a marine megafauna species group (sea turtles) in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia region (IOSEA). We designed and distributed an online survey to experts in the fields of sea turtle research, marine conservation, fisheries management, consulting and NGOs throughout IOSEA. Our results reveal that IUU fishing is likely to have potentially significant impacts on sea turtle populations in IOSEA through targeted exploitation and international wildlife trafficking. Addressing domestic IUU fishing needs to be actioned as a high priority within the study area, as does the issue of patrolling maritime borders to deter illegal cross-border transhipment. There is a demonstrable need to strengthen MCS and employ regional coordination to help build capacity in less-developed nations. Future research requirements include evaluating IUU fishing as a threat to sea turtles and other threatened marine species at multiple scales, further investigation into market forces throughout IOSEA, and examination of potential barriers to implementing management solutions. We advocate for introducing sea turtle-specific measures into IUU fishing mitigation strategies to help maximize the opportunity for positive outcomes in creating healthy ecosystems and stable communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ivory bans are among the critical policy instruments used to strengthen regulation, reduce ivory trade, and ultimately aim to benefit elephant conservation. China imposed a comprehensive ban in 2018 to prohibit ivory importation for commercial purposes and domestic ivory sales with narrow exemptions. The ban has significantly changed China's ivory policy direction and substantially restricted the international and domestic trade of ivory in China. In this paper, we identify the development and limitations and potential for improvement. The ivory ban closed domestic sales and banned trophy ivory and pre-convention ivory imports. However, the sentencing exemptions, the exemptions for returning and auctioning ivory cultural relics, gifting ivory gifts and the unrestricted mammoth ivory trade, weaken the ivory policy and its conservation potential. Based on our analysis, we suggest that prosecution or penalties exemptions in ivory crimes may require further review to ensure regulatory deterrence effectiveness; ambiguous regulations for exempted ivory cultural relics need clear criteria for policy implementation; ivory gifting as allowed in the law requires explicit measures to prevent illegal exchange; the rising mammoth ivory markets may need regulatory management prevent 'laundering' elephant ivory. In conclusion, China's ivory control is promoted by the trade ban, yet the effectiveness of ivory policy still faces challenges in prosecution and penalty exemptions, import and auction trade exemptions, monitoring of gift giving and open mammoth ivory trade. • Sentencing, ban exemptions and mammoth ivory trade limit China's ivory policy • The exempted ivory amounts in sentencing rules for ivory crimes has increased. • Allowing ivory cultural relics to be imported and auctioned challenges regulations. • Ivory gift exchange as allowed in the current law lacks monitoring measures. • The unrestricted mammoth ivory trade may need regulation for ivory trade control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ants are traded as pets across the globe, but if introduced outside of their native ranges they could become invasive with dire environmental and economic consequences. We demonstrate how geotagged e-commerce information can be utilized for biosecurity risk assessment. We monitored online pet ant sales in China and found that 58,937 ant colonies from 209 species were sold by 206 sellers in 89 cities across the country in six months. More than a quarter of the traded species were not native to China. Trait-based analysis revealed that the most sought-after ants have higher invasive potential than less popular species. Climate-based distribution models suggest that 24.7 % of the non-native species could find suitable climatic conditions in the cities from which they were sold. If released, pet ants could interfere with urban ecosystems, rural agriculture, and spill over to threaten back-country habitats with high biodiversity. Based on our analysis we offer guidelines on wildlife trade policy and management: (1) we provide a list of potentially invasive ants sold in each Chinese city; (2) we identify the highest risk of a non-native ant introduction at the Greater Bay area of subtropical southern China; (3) we highlight the absence of within-country permitting requirements which resulted in invasive species being transported across Chinese provincial lines. Worldwide, similar wildlife trade records are only accessible to conservation practitioners cognizant of local languages and customs. We encourage grassroot web scraping of under-monitored, fast-developing economies to gather information crucial for guiding regional policy decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The international trade of non-domesticated pets impacts both conservation and biosecurity via the harvest and release of live animals beyond their native distributions. The extent to which individual countries mitigate these impacts via regulation of trade is inconsistent, as is their capacity to monitor internet facilitated trade. We investigated the online trade of vertebrate pets within Australia, a country with a reputation for relatively stringent pet-importation regulations and world-class border biosecurity. Using semi-automated data mining (i.e., webscraping) techniques, we collected online pet trade data over the course of 14 weeks from 12 Australian e-commerce platforms selected using an a priori set of search terms. We analysed spatial, temporal and taxonomic biases in trade and identified instances of high rates of trade in: (i) threatened species, (ii) non-native species, (iii) and species not permissible for live import. We identified over 100,000 individual live animals across 1192 species, including: 667 non-native species for sale within Australia from 03/12/2019 to 20/03/2020 (mammals were excluded from our analysis). Our findings constitute a much greater scale (in terms of abundance and richness) of non-native species trade than previously recorded in Australia. Substantial changes to legislative control of domestically traded pets are needed at the national level to reduce the volume of non-native pets that may contribute to the establishment of invasive species in Australia. We suggest that contemporary examples of permit systems applied to native taxa may provide a valuable template for the implementation of such changes. • The vertebrate pet trade in Australia is subject to strict import laws, but inconsistent domestic trade regulations. • We use webscrapers to collect online pet trade data from 12 Australian websites over 14 weeks prior to COVID disruptions. • We found 1192 species being within Australia, including 667 non-native species and 81 threatened species. • The trade in non-native pets is highly unregulated, including 279 species that are illegal to commercially import. • Trade of taxonomically undescribed taxa was widespread, with 'pseudo-taxonomic' names used by hobbyists instead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity is threatened by multiple factors including habitat loss, climate change, and over-exploitation. The illegal wildlife trade is one of the key threats to species survival and its regulation and monitoring are dependent on accurate identification. Plants are particularly difficult to identify due to their look-alike properties, which are further aggravated when they are processed eventually in their finished product. Identification of species is critical to monitoring, detecting, and regulating the wildlife trade. In this study, we quantified species misidentification using a match-mismatch experiment adapted from psychology, taking examples of medicinal plant products used in Traditional Asian Medicines. Participants compared 210 pairs of images of plant products, indicating if the paired images were the same (species), different (species), or (they) did not know. We found that the matched pairs (paired images of the same species) had a lower level of error than the unmatched pairs (paired images of different species). Similarly, 1.4% of the image pairs had errors over 75%, three of them as high as 83%. Such errors in species identification can be used by traders to deceive enforcement actions through laundering as less threatened or regulated species. These results suggest that future interventions around identification training should prioritize species with high errors and should consider that product processing may have a significant impact on identification. Further, initiatives related to species identification could benefit from using existing standard methodologies from psychology to inform training needs and measure their impacts which in turn will benefit conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wildlife trade is now one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, and birds are among the most commonly traded groups worldwide. The demand for pet birds is especially high in Indonesia, a country with many exploited, imperiled bird species. Finding solutions to the threat that trade poses for birds, and wildlife in general, requires an understanding of its socioeconomic dimensions. We examined consumer demography and preferences of 762 bird owners in Medan, Sumatra, focusing on the differences among owners of birds taken from the wild versus birds bred in captivity. We found that the vast majority of bird owners have at least one wild-caught bird. However, wild-caught bird ownership is not uniformly distributed across Medan; rather, there are distinct hotspots with high proportions of people with wild-caught birds. The main reasons for owning wild-caught birds are lack of access to and the high cost of captive-bred birds, and a perception that captive-bred birds do not sing as well as wild-caught ones. We conclude that captive-breeding programs could reduce the pressure on wild populations, especially if suppliers are able to produce relatively cheap captive-bred birds. However, the perceived poorer song quality of captive-bred individuals might be a problem for the captive breeding of some species, notably the White-rumped Shama, Copsychus malabaricus . Since many owners of this species compete in bird song competitions, establishing competition categories specifically for captive-bred shamas could promote captive-bred bird ownership. Tackling the problem of the wild bird trade in Indonesia and elsewhere will require consideration of both the economic and the social factors that underlie pet ownership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial production systems for wildlife increasingly involve closed-cycle captive breeding, in which effective regulation requires methods for verifying the provenance of stock. We compared the isotopic and elemental compositions of skin from wild and captive-bred pythons raised under different diet regimes in Indonesia and Viet Nam to examine the efficacy of using these techniques as a means of determining the source and origin of skins entering international trade. We found significant differences in both isotopic and elemental markers between wild and captive-bred snakes, as well as those from different geographic origins. Combinations of both techniques were able to discriminate between diet treatments and geographic origins with up to 100% accuracy. Moreover, our experimental manipulation of python diets confirmed that the application of specific diet regimes (or the addition of known elemental markers) for captive-bred snakes can create signatures specific to those animals, vastly improving the efficacy of these methods. Our study strongly suggests that the analysis of isotope ratios and elemental markers offers a powerful tool for verifying the provenance of reptile skins entering trade – but these methodologies will be most applicable (and cost-effective) for species with small populations of genuine conservation concern, rather than for large volume trade in species for which there is little conservation risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding drivers of demand for exotic pets may help inform adequate conservation strategies to address unsustainable trade. Here, we used a best-worst scaling approach to understand the variety of preferences and motivations for owning exotic pets. Respondents (316 from 33 countries) preferred exotic pets that were captive-bred, had rare aesthetic features, and were common in the wild and abundant in the market. Species that were at risk of extinction, in short supply, sourced from the wild, and under trade restrictions were the least favoured by respondents. Feelings of care, such as attachment, affection, nurture, as well as curiosity and being passionate about the species, were dominant motivations for pet keepers. Respondents were willing to support the conservation of species in the wild. Our findings highlight that relational dimensions are among the most important aspects influencing decisions to own exotic pets. Certification systems of origin that supports animal welfare and conservation may help consumers support sustainable trade in exotic pet species. However, attention should be paid to challenges throughout the supply chain and not to incentivize consumers' preferences for rare genetic features as this may pose a risk to the conservation of species in the wild. When planning conservation initiatives and policies, considering relational dimensions may provide novel insights to better foster meaningful expressions of care with animals in the wild, as opposed to animals as exotic pets. Fostering care, as a normative human sense of kinship with non-humans, could help channeling "demand for ownership" towards "stewardship relations" with nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unsustainable trade in wildlife is one of the major threats affecting the global biodiversity crisis. An important part of the trade now occurs on digital marketplaces and social media. Automated methods to identify trade posts are needed as resources for conservation are limited. Here, we developed machine vision models based on Deep Neural Networks with the aim to automatically identify images of exotic pet animals for sale. We trained 24 neural-net models on a newly created dataset, spanning a combination of five different architectures, three methods of training and two types of datasets. Model generalisation improved after setting a portion of the training images to represent negative features. Models were evaluated on both within and out-of-distribution data to test wider model applicability. The top performing models achieved an f-score of over 0.95 on within-distribution evaluation and between 0.75 and 0.87 on the two out-of-distribution datasets (i.e., data acquired from a source unrelated to training data), therefore, showcasing the potential application of the model to help identify content related to the sale of threatened species on digital platforms. Notably, feature-visualisation indicated that models performed well in detecting the surrounding context in which an animal was located, therefore helping to automatically detect images of animals in non-natural environments. The proposed methods are an important step towards automatic detection of online wildlife trade using machine vision models and can also be adapted to study more broadly other types of online people-nature interactions. Future studies can use these findings to build robust machine-learning models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, thousands of orchid species are harvested from the wild. Widespread legal and illegal unsustainable trade has contributed to the decline of many species. However, there is also evidence of long-term, sustainable wild harvest of some orchid species that contribute to local livelihoods and cultural traditions. There is a clear need to help guide harvesters and resource managers towards sustainability. However, there is currently no appropriate framework to guide local harvest decisions, which is especially problematic given huge data limitations, variations in on-the-ground capacity to monitor and manage resources, and considering that the potential for sustainable harvest is context-specific. We reviewed the literature on orchid harvest, ecology and demography; assessed information on the life history of 27 harvested species; and drew on our experience with diverse orchid taxa to identify characteristics expected to influence harvest sustainability. We identified 23 characteristics within four themes: abundance and distribution; species traits related to growth and reproduction; local management practices; and demand. We selected 12 characteristics for which information was available for many species and observable in the field, and used an iterative process to develop a decision-making dichotomous key. The key identifies if and how the harvest of a given population at a given time can be conducted more sustainably, offering sets of considerations that harvesters and managers can use and adapt to local contexts. Critical research gaps include techniques for partial plant harvest and for augmentation; and investigation into the traits and protocols that have permitted long-term persistence and that can increase current sustainability. • Wild orchids are harvested globally, often unsustainably with little management. • Yet, some harvested species have persisted long-term, suggesting sustainability. • We identify observable characteristics that help determine sustainability outcomes. • We present a decision-making key to help guide more sustainable orchid harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trade in bear bile and other bear parts in Southeast Asia and China is a leading driver in the decline of Asian bear populations, and is a serious conservation challenge. Currently consumption of bear parts is unsustainable, and could lead to the extinction of some bear species in the wild. Reducing demand for such products is at the core of strategies to conserve species involved in illegal wildlife trade. A better understanding of the attitudinal, cultural and economic mechanisms behind bear bile consumption behaviors would inform more effective education and awareness efforts towards changing these socioeconomic variables. Using surveys, we conducted a preliminary investigation in northern Laos of Chinese tourists in Laos ( n = 401) and Lao ( n = 887) respondents' use of bear bile and bear parts, as well as differences in attitudes, value orientations, and knowledge between these two groups. Our results indicate that the availability of the product leads to greater reliance, as seen in our survey results of the Chinese respondents. Lao respondents, though less reliant, were more likely to prefer wild bear bile. Chinese tourists appeared to be more knowledgeable about bear conservation, versus Lao respondents. In general, we note substantial differences in attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge of bear part consumption between Lao and Chinese respondents. Based on these results, we advise the integration of educational programs with other strategies throughout Southeast Asia to increase understanding of the linkage between the decline in bear populations and the use of bear bile and other bear parts, thereby reducing demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indochinese leopard ( Panthera pardus delacouri ) is a genetically distinct subspecies that historically occurred throughout mainland Southeast Asia, but might have experienced recent declines in numbers and distribution. This study aimed to determine the current distribution of the Indochinese leopard, and estimate its population size, by reviewing data from camera trap and other wildlife surveys conducted during the past 20 years. Our results showed the Indochinese leopard likely now occurs only in 6.2% of its historical range, with only 2.4% of its distribution in areas of confirmed leopard presence. The leopard is extirpated in Singapore, likely extirpated in Laos and Vietnam, nearly extirpated in Cambodia and China, and has greatly reduced distributions in Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand. There are plausibly only two major strongholds remaining, which we consider priority sites: Peninsular Malaysia, and the Northern Tenasserim Forest Complex. We also identified a small isolated population in eastern Cambodia as a third priority site, because of its uniqueness and high conservation value. We estimate a total remaining population of 973–2503 individuals, with only 409–1051 breeding adults. Increased poaching for the illegal wildlife trade likely is the main factor causing the decline of the Indochinese leopard. Other potential contributing factors include prey declines, habitat destruction, and possibly disease. We recommend a separate IUCN assessment for the Indochinese leopard, and that this subspecies be classified as Endangered. Our findings provide important information that can help guide where conservation actions would be most effective in preventing the extinction of this subspecies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several species of wildlife are hunted around the world for the perceived potency of certain parts of their bodies in traditional medicine and in fetish practices. In Africa, many cultures require animal parts for a wide range of traditional and religious practices. This has resulted in the persecution of more than 354 bird species across the continent. In this study, we evaluated the drivers and frequency of human-related avian mortality focusing on the trade in avian body parts around major protected areas in the Cross River region of southeastern Nigeria. We conducted personal interviews with men from 18 villages in proximity to four natural areas in the region, and asked the men questions related to their knowledge of trade in avian body parts. From the responses obtained, we identified 27 bird species from 13 families in regional trade. Three of the top 5 most reported species are globally threatened. Both knowledge of and participation in the trade were pervasive across the study sites and across different occupational groups. 94% of respondents claimed knowledge of trade in avian body parts; 66% had participated in that trade in the last 2 years. To identify predictors of participation in the avian body part trade, we fitted all possible model combinations using the Generalized Linear Mixed Model approach and ranked them based on their AICc values. The top-ranked model identified age, average monthly income, perceived personal need for avian body parts, and number of wives as the top socio-economic drivers of participation. Younger people and villagers with low monthly income were more likely to participate in the trade. Probability of involvement also increased with the number of wives and a perceived personal need for avian body parts. The former may be an indication of a larger household that requires more resources to sustain it; the latter likely reflects personal conviction of the efficacy of using avian body parts in traditional medicine and other cultural practices. Our study highlights the importance of targeting socio-economic factors and integrating cultural needs of the people into conservation planning aimed at reducing human–wildlife conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for wildlife products drives an illegal trade estimated to be worth up to $10 billion per year, ranking it amongst the top transnational crimes in terms of value. Orchids are one of the best-selling plants in the legal horticultural trade but are also traded illegally and make up 70% of all species listed by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). To study consumer preferences for horticultural orchids we use choice experiments to survey 522 orchid buyers online and at large international orchid shows. Using latent class modelling we show that different groups of consumers in our sample have distinct preferences, and that these groups are based on gender, genera grown, online purchasing and type of grower. Over half of our sample, likely to be buyers of mass-produced orchids, prefer white, multi-flowered plants. Of greater conservation interest were a smaller group consisting of male hobbyist growers who buy their orchids online, and who were willing to pay significantly more for species that are rare in trade. This is the first in-depth study of consumer preferences in the international orchid trade and our findings confirm the importance of rarity as a driver of hobbyist trade. We show that market-research methods are a new tool for conservationists that could provide evidence for more effective conservation of species threatened by trade, especially via campaigns that focus on demand reduction or behaviour change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International trade in wildlife is a major threat to biodiversity conservation. CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is the primary mechanism for maintaining sustainability in international wildlife trade. Although a comparatively well-designed legal instrument, CITES has been criticised because of its emphasis on regulatory measures and disregard for the economic reality of wildlife trade. Through means of a case study on the trade in pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) in Asia, we evaluate the CITES approach to controlling trade and demonstrate significant areas to be addressed. These arise because CITES fails to accurately monitor supply, particularly where trade is illegal, it fails to consider the impact of trade controls in realistic terms, and it does little to consider the complex nature of demand or contend with changing market dynamics. To more effectively manage trade we argue that reforms are needed within CITES. Specifically, we highlight improved monitoring of supply (by accounting for illegal and legal trade) and of demand and prices for wildlife (through national wildlife consumption surveys). This information would generate a more holistic understanding of wildlife trade and, if integrated with the Convention’s existing trade database, would allow a more realistic evaluation of the performance of trade controls, and could inform decision-making and the implementation of interventions which go beyond regulation and address demand directly. In a world of rapid economic and social change understanding markets and addressing demand as well as supply is essential to conserving the world’s trade threatened species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wildlife trade involves thousands of vertebrate species and now rivals habitat loss as an extinction driver in some regions. However, its impacts are poorly known because field monitoring of wild populations is expensive, localized, and requires specialized expertise. We examined whether market data and expert opinion could be used to identify bird species that may be at risk from the trade in Indonesia. We asked expert ornithologists to characterize population trends of 38 species of Indonesian birds, including many heavily traded species. They identified 14 species as having undergone population declines, all of which are regularly traded, and only two of which are restricted to old-growth forests. Conversely, none of the untraded species was classified as declining. We combined the expert-derived population trends with data on changes in price and trade volume from Indonesian wildlife markets to see if market data could identify declining species. We found that severely declining species have a significantly different price–volume signal than stable/increasing species; the former are characterized by increasing market prices and declining volumes. Market data are much cheaper to collect than field data, roughly 1/30th the cost of a representative field study. We recommend a two-step approach to assess trade impacts on wild birds in Southeast Asia: coordinated market monitoring followed by field studies of species whose market signals indicate declining populations. Our findings, however, require further validation with higher resolution wild population and market data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trade in large cats ( Panthera and Neofelis species), and indeed other wild cats, is a clear impediment to their conservation. Myanmar is an important country for cat conservation, both because of the presence of significant populations of threatened species but equally as it is positioned strategically between China, Thailand and India. Here we analyse data from large cat skins and other cat parts observed openly for sale at two border towns in Myanmar. Data from Tachilek on the Myanmar–Thailand border (19 surveys, 1991–2013) and Mong La on the Myanmar–China border (7 surveys, 2001–2014) show that the most common species in trade was the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (482 individuals; observed in 22/24 surveys), followed by leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis (458 individuals; 11/12 surveys), leopard Panthera pardus (344; 22/24 surveys), tiger P. tigris (207 individuals; 21/24 surveys) and Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temmincki (135 individuals; 10/12 surveys). Volumes of skins held no relationship with the number of other cat parts (e.g. skull, claws and canines) in trade. The number of small cat skins observed was positively related to the number of large cat skins. There were no indications that leopards or clouded leopards were used as replacement for tigers. While the number of shops selling cat parts increased in Mong La from 6 in 2006 to 21 in 2014 there was no associated temporal increase in trade, whereas the number of shops decreased from 35 in 2000 to 6 in 2013 in Tachilek and this coincided with a decrease in available cat parts. These data show that in the last decades the trade of cat parts from Myanmar into Thailand has diminished and reaffirms the role of China in the trade of cats out of Myanmar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seahorses set precedent as the first marine fishes added to CITES Appendix II and taken through CITES processes. Although the vast majority of seahorses are traded dead for traditional medicine, the live trade for ornamental display was the main pressure on some populations. We investigated changes in the international trade in live seahorses over time, exploring the influence of CITES listing and its compliance process (called Review of Significant Trade or RST). Globally, reported exports of live seahorses from key trading Parties declined notably in the first years after the CITES listing, and yet more after RST, to just 7 % of historic levels. These changes are explained first by a decline in wild sourcing after the listing and then by a decrease in the number of captive born seahorses (from wild-sourced parents) after RST. Almost all live seahorses in international trade are now captive bred (F2 generation or more). Consequently, there are now fewer wild sourced species in trade, from fewer countries and more tank-raised species, from more countries. In summary, the CITES listing for seahorses appears to have reduced pressure of international trade on some wild populations – those involved in live trade. This gain is, however, tiny in the context of the vast trade in dried seahorses, most of which are now smuggled across borders. The difference probably lies in the small volume and relatively high value of the aquarium trade. CITES Parties still need to determine how changes in live trade are affecting wild seahorse populations. • Listing seahorses on CITES has changed the live trade in two significant ways. • 1) Volumes of seahorses in international trade have declined considerably over time. • 2) The international trade has seen a shift from wild to captive bred sourcing. • In contrast, the dried seahorses trade remains problematic after the CITES listing. • We do not know how changes in live trade are affecting wild seahorse populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The value of reports on the use of wildlife in ethnopharmacological surveys increases when context is provided on the legality of its use and on the species’ conservation status. Aim of the study To evaluate if context is provided when protected and threatened animals are reported as being used in traditional medicine, and to provide recommendations for future reporting. Material and methods Review of recent papers in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Results Rarely is information provided on (1) the conservation status of the animals that are used in traditional medicine, (2) whether the parts can be obtained non-invasively or if the animals have to be killed, or (3) whether or not it is legal to use the animals, their parts or derivatives according to national law. Conclusion When presenting the results of ethnopharmalogical surveys include (1) the conservation status of the species affected, (2) whether or not parts could be harvested non-invasively and (3) the legality of harvesting and / or trading these animals, their parts or their derivatives. Our focus here is on animals, given that more so than in plants or fungi, many of their parts used in natural medicine cannot be obtained non-invasively, but a similar set of guidelines could be developed for other taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on the illegal trade in ivory and elephant parts in the Special Development Zone of Mong La, Shan State, Myanmar, on the border with China. Mong La caters exclusively for the Chinese market and is best described as a Chinese enclave in Myanmar. We surveyed the morning market, shops and hotels in February 2006, February 2009 and December 2013–January 2014. Trade in body parts primarily concerned dried elephant skin (4 pieces in 2006, 278 in 2009 and 1238 in 2013–2014), and to a lesser extent molars and bones. We found 3494 pieces of carved ivory (none in 2006, 200 in 2009 and 3294 in 2013–2014) and 49 whole tusks (all in 2013–2014) openly for sale, suggesting Mong La has recently emerged as a significant hub of the ivory trade. The origin of the ivory may constitute a combination of Asian elephant ivory from Myanmar and African ivory imported via China. According to local sources the carving was done by Chinese craftsmen, in Mong La as well as across the border in China, and was largely, if not exclusively, intended for the internal Chinese market. Based on asking prices of the most commonly offered items the retail value of the ivory on display in Mong La during the 2013–2014 survey totals an estimated US$1.2 million. Trade in elephant parts and elephant ivory is illegal in Myanmar and CITES I listing of elephants preclude international trade in them. Mong La is governed largely autonomously by an overlord and policed by an Eastern Shan State army. We urge both the Myanmar and Chinese governments to liaise with the Mong La rulers to curb the trade in ivory (and other high profile species), and recommend that the Myanmar and Chinese CITES authorities come together urgently as to resolve the illicit trade of ivory and elephant parts across their borders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Globally the wildlife trade is one of the most attractive and profitable of all the illicit trades. [•] The wildlife trade can directly encourage or finance civil conflict and insecurity. [•] Strong wildife industries can foster weak economic development or exposure to price shocks. [•] Management interventions will benefit from an understanding of wildlife as high-value natural resources. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Fungal and fungal-like parasites and the diseases which they cause have been increasingly associated with amphibians and fish population declines at a global scale. This review summarises our current knowledge of the Mesomycetozoea, a poorly-studied group of fungal-like parasites that includes emerging virulent parasites capable of causing high mortality rates in fish and amphibian populations. This review considers the potential impact of emerging parasites in this class on global aquatic biodiversity. Several aspects of the biology of mesomycetozoean parasites are associated with the potential to drive hosts to extinction, including their high virulence under certain conditions, low host specificity, and a free-living infectious stage. In addition, mesomycetozoeans are currently being introduced into novel environments and hosts via the global freshwater wildlife trade. These parasites have been linked to dramatic population declines in at least one native fish throughout Europe, and there are indications that they are already impacting amphibian populations in America and Europe. The impact of mesomycetozoeans on freshwater biodiversity is likely to increase in response to stressors such as global climate change and habitat modification. Surveillance for mesomycetozoean parasites in the field and in specimens transported in the aquatic wildlife trade needs to be increased, and a tighter control of the aquatic wildlife trade is urgently needed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Economic theory predicts that exploitation of a species alone is unlikely to result in extinction because of escalating costs involved in finding increasingly rare individuals of a declining species. However, a recently proposed hypothesis, the Anthropogenic Allee Effect (AAE), proposes that if people place disproportionate value on rare species, this may result in a cycle whereby increased exploitation reduces the population size, thus increasing its value and ultimately leading to its extinction in the wild. We tested this hypothesis using data collected on wild harvests, preferences of pet keepers and sale prices of different populations of green pythons (Morelia viridis) and hypothesized that the AAE could occur among population within species, not just between them. The rarity of populations of green pythons was strongly positively correlated with price and negatively correlated with harvest levels. The two populations that were deemed most desirable by pet collectors exhibited abnormal coloration and were found to be suffering from the effects of over-exploitation for the pet trade. Adequate regulation and enforcement are needed to reduce the effects of demand on illegal harvesting and conservationists and government bodies should be aware of the effects of disclosing the rarity of a species and its populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Widespread hunting of flying foxes has generated concern regarding population declines and the spread of emerging infectious diseases. To investigate the potential impacts of this trade, we conducted questionnaires in 45 settlements across 12 population centres within Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, a region previously identified as a hunting hotspot. By combining results from 63 hunter and 88 vendor interviews, we highlight two population centres (Palangka Raya and Buntok/Tamiang Layang) with higher hunting rates than other areas, which act as flying fox trading hubs. Flying fox populations were perceived to be declining province-wide: declines in captures and sales were reported by 81% of hunters and 60% of market vendors, who also reported availability as the key factor underlying temporal variations in trade. There was substantial risk of zoonotic disease transmission between bats, hunters and traders: the vast majority of respondents were unaware that flying foxes carry potentially fatal viruses, and so few people protected themselves from physical contact. Moreover, both hunters and vendors were frequently bitten and the majority of bites drew blood. Most hunters (58%) also reported unintentional by-catches that included keystone bird species and slow lorises. The scale of hunting over Central Kalimantan represents a serious threat to the long-term viability of flying fox populations (and potentially those of other species), and could have serious public health implications. Reducing or eliminating hunting and trade would mitigate the risk of disease transmission, while maintaining the economic and ecosystem benefits that flying foxes provide, in terms of pollination and seed dispersal. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Asian turtles are overharvested for food, medicinal purposes and pets, and most species are now at risk of extinction (‘Asian turtle crisis’). As a result of high levels of trade, some species of Asian turtles are known to science mostly or only from animals found in trade. The Vietnamese box turtle (Cuora picturata) was described in 1998 and is known only from markets. This species is likely to be highly threatened, and identifying the origin of this “market species” is imperative if it is to be conserved. We used evidence from phylogeny, biogeography and trade patterns to focus field searches for this species, and in July 2010–January 2011 found it in the wild at three localities on the Langbian Plateau of southern Vietnam. This discovery provides the first opportunity to conserve the Vietnamese box turtle, and provides hope for determining the wild origin of other rare Asian turtles that remain known only from commercial trade. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Commercial farming of wildlife, particularly in Southeast Asia, is currently the subject of much debate and to date, its conservation impact has been largely unexplored. This study used semi-structured interviews to build a detailed understanding of the dynamics of the commercial farming of Southeast Asian porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) in the northwest Vietnamese province of Son La. Although farm owners are obliged by law to propagate stock solely from farm-bred animals, 58% of farm owners admitted purchasing wild founder stock, with at least 19% continuing to buy wild individuals. Despite the number of farms, the primary demand on them is to supply other farms, and wild meat restaurants were still sourcing their meat from wild populations. Lower cost was a major factor driving the trade in wild animals, with wild adult porcupines being bought for half the price of farm-bred adults. With high demand from farms and restaurants, increased targeted hunting may be the cause of a dramatic decline in the wild population of porcupines across the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Commercial trade is a major driver of over-exploitation of wild species, but the pattern of demand and how it responds to changes in supply is poorly understood. Here we explore the markets for snakes from Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia to evaluate future exploitation scenarios, identify entry points for conservation and, more generally, to illustrate the value of multi-scale analysis of markets to traded wildlife conservation. In Cambodia, the largest driver of snake exploitation is the domestic trade in snakes as crocodile food. We estimate that farmed crocodiles consume between 2.7 and 12.2 million snakes per year. The market price for crocodiles has been in decline since 2003, which, combined with rising prices for their food, has led to a reduced frequency of feeding and closure of small farms. The large farms that generate a disproportionate amount of the demand for snakes continue to operate in anticipation of future market opportunities, and preferences for snakes could help maintain demand if market prices for crocodiles rise to pre 2003 levels. In the absence of a sustained demand from crocodile farms, it is also possible that alternative markets will develop, such as one for human snack food. The demand for snakes, however, also depends on the availability of substitute resources, principally fish. The substitutability and low price elasticity of demand offers a relatively sustainable form of consumerism. Given the nature of these market drivers, addressing consumer preferences and limiting the protection of snakes to their breeding season are likely to be the most effective tools for conservation. This study highlights the importance of understanding the structure of markets and the behaviour of consumer demand prior to implementing regulations on wildlife hunting and trade. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Amphibians are globally threatened by anthropogenic habitat loss, the wildlife trade and emerging diseases. Previous authors have hypothesized that the spread of the amphibian disease chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and amphibian ranaviruses are associated with the international trade in live amphibians. The North American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is thought to be a carrier of these pathogens, is globally traded as a live commodity, and is sold live in US markets. We obtained importation data for all live amphibians, and parts thereof, into three major US ports of entry (Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York) from 2000 to 2005. Importation of live amphibians into these ports totaled almost 28 million individuals over this 6-year period. We collected samples from freshly-imported market frogs and found infection with both pathogens in all three cities and all seasons, with an overall infection prevalence of 62% (306/493) and 8.5% (50/588) for B. dendrobatidis and ranaviruses, respectively, by PCR. This study definitively identifies these two important pathogens in recently imported live market frogs and suggests that the amphibian trade can contribute to introductions of these pathogens into new regions. It provides support for the recent listing of B. dendrobatidis and ranaviral diseases by the OIE, and provides evidence for measures to be taken to eradicate these pathogens from the trade. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Conservation litigation applies environmental liability law to biodiversity conservation contexts—holding parties who harm biodiversity responsible for providing remedies such as restoration, compensation, apologies and investments into education and cultural activities. Many countries have enabling legislation, but these types of lawsuits are rare in most countries and have been infrequently used to protect biodiversity from drivers such as illegal wildlife trade. Yet, these types of cases could be strategically used to provide remedies for cases of egregious harm and help catalyze social change through the power of judicial decisions. The viability of future cases, however, relies heavily on the judges and juries who adjudicate cases. Rather than wait potentially decades for test cases to emerge to help evaluate the success of this strategy, we conducted mock trials and post-trial interviews with Indonesian judges (N = 32), a population that is rarely explored in conservation science. We presented them with a hypothetical civil lawsuit in a case of illegal tiger trade, which sought to hold the defendant liable for providing 11 different remedies to address the harm purportedly caused by their actions. The results show that judges were very amenable to providing remedies in this type of civil lawsuit; for eight of the 11 claims, over 60% of the respondents indicated each claim would be likely to be accepted. The results also highlighted six key themes important in judicial decision-making, which provide insights for practitioners developing future lawsuits. The results suggest a favorable setting for testing real-world application of liability laws to remedy biodiversity harm, which may become an important part of future environmental governance. • Conservation litigation holds those who harm biodiversity responsible for providing remedies. • Although legally possible in many countries, these lawsuits are still rare. • Mock trials with Indonesian judges highlight opportunities for future conservation litigation. • Judges were receptive to many different types of remedies for harm to biodiversity. • Interviews provided insights for how to develop future successful cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand for tiger parts and products has fuelled the poaching of wild tigers. As the supply of wild tigers has become scarce, tiger farming has emerged as an alternative source and proliferated in several Asian countries with unclear implications of a legalized trade in farmed tigers on wild tiger demand. We conducted a choice experiment with 228 Vietnamese tiger bone glue consumers investigating their preferences and trade-offs for different attributes of their purchase choice, including legality, source, purity, and price. We calculated consumers' willingness to pay for each attribute level under the current trade ban and in a hypothetical legal trade. Consumers preferred and were willing to pay more for wild than farmed tiger glue and a higher proportion of tiger bone in the glue. Consumers also preferred legal over illegal sufficiently for most to switch from illegal wild to legal farmed tiger. Hence, a legal trade will shift preferences significantly towards farmed tiger glue from legal sources but will not eradicate demand for wild tigers, likely leading to the parallel operation of legal and illegal markets. We discuss the implications of the results for conserving wild tigers through efforts to manage demand in Vietnam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ornamental fish keeping is a popular hobby worldwide, supporting a significant global aquarium industry. Using export records of live snakeheads (Channa spp.) from India, we show a six-fold increase in the numbers of these (wild-sourced, freshwater) species exported worldwide between 2014 and 2019, driven by an increase in exports from West Bengal to China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. We highlight issues associated with exploitation of a poorly-known taxonomic group (in this case, the genus Channa), species that have restricted ranges, are rare, recently described, and difficult for non-experts to distinguish from others, and the risks associated with global transport of a potentially invasive species. We outline knowledge gaps relevant to national-level management; more broadly, we suggest a fundamental change of approach whereby traders of 'luxury' wildlife products (e.g. exotic pets) are required to demonstrate that trade is sustainable and safe, rather than conservationists to demonstrate that it is not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Excessive hunting pressure, due in large part to commercialization, has reduced the populations of many tropical large mammal species. Wildlife over-exploitation is severe in Indonesia, especially on Sulawesi, where human resources and funding are inadequate to monitor the wildlife trade and enforce existing protection laws. In response, the Wildlife Crimes Unit program was established in December 2001 to: (i) monitor wildlife transportation into North Sulawesi and market sales; (ii) provide legal and technical support to law enforcement agencies; and (iii) promote public awareness of wildlife and protection laws. Over a two-year period, 6963 wild mammals en route to markets were encountered (∼8 individuals h−1) and 96,586 wild mammals were documented during market surveys. The trade of some protected mammals declined significantly over this period, but overall trade in wild mammals increased by 30%. High volume of trade in non-protected animals such as the Sulawesi pig Sus celebensis and large flying foxes (Pteropodidae), raise concerns about the sustainability of current harvesting. To combat this problem, we recommend that: (1) efforts are continued to reduce trade in protected species; (2) protected status is extended to heavily traded but non-protected taxa, such as flying foxes; (3) the effects of hunting on rat and bat populations, as well as its impact on forest dynamics, are quantified; and (4) work is carried out with local communities to strengthen awareness, set sustainable limits on wild mammal harvesting, and establish practical mechanisms for enforcing these limits. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Trade in wildlife resources is permitted and regulated by national and international governance. Focussing on the trade in chameleons from Madagascar, our objective was to investigate the consequences of changes in governance on the number of individuals and species traded together with the prices paid to collectors, intermediaries and exporters. As a result of the liberalisation of export controls in 1988, exports of chameleons grew exponentially at an average rate of 62% per annum, the trade in Calumma spp. increasing at 91% per annum. The intervention of CITES in 1994, as a result of concerns over the trade, capped official exports at approximately 20,000 per annum and also restricted the trade to four species of Furcifer. The consequence of the CITES intervention was a shift in the species exported from a mix of Calumma harvested in the east and Furcifer harvested in the west to a trade in Furcifer alone, alongside an increase in the number of Furcifer exports. Consequently there was a shift in the distribution of local benefits gained from the trade away from the rainforests in the east, the centre of conservation concern. At the same time there was also a fall in the prices paid to collectors and intermediaries involved in the trade and a widening of the gap with the prices paid to exporters. The creation of an Experimental Management Programme within Madagascar to address the concerns of CITES in 1998/1999 and lobby for some expansion of the trade, led to an initial fall in the number of chameleons traded. Failure to achieve the latter objective has more recently led to an increase in the number of species traded and a further widening of the prices paid to collectors and exporters. These results highlight the need to consider carefully the consequences of changes in governance on the wildlife trade if conservation and local people are to benefit from the trade in wildlife resources. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The global trade in chameleons from 1977 to 2001 is reviewed using the compiled import data for chameleons from the CITES database. African countries accounted for 96% of reported exports, with Madagascar, Tanzanaia and Togo dominating the trade, while the USA dominated the import market with 69% of individuals. Chamaeleo senegalensis accounted for 25% of exports; only eight of the other 96 exported species each contributed more than 3% of the total 845,000 recorded exports. High exports in the late 1970s declined, with the exit of Kenya from the trade, to approximately 3000 individuals in 1982, before rising again to record exports of 81,000 individuals in 2001. Reported captive bred and ranched individuals form a small but increasing contribution to the trade. Contributions of individual countries to the changing pattern of trade are discussed in relation to governance issues. While national and international legislation has been successful in regulating the reported exports from the dominant exporting nations in the 1990s, the continuing rise in demand has led to that demand being satisfied by an increase in exports from other countries and, in particular, Uganda, Benin, Mozambique, Yemen and Comoros. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Globally, tigers are considered to be endangered, and are listed on Appendix I of CITES. A simple test, using a species-specific primer pair, was developed to identify tiger meat, faeces and dried skin, and provide forensic evidence of illegal wildlife trade. The specific fragment of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was also successfully amplified from raw DNA products extracted from single tiger hairs. This PCR-based approach opens a new avenue to forensic identification of less-than-optimal samples. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]