Search

Stroke is a leading cause of disability and death world-wide and nutrition is a modifiable risk factor for stroke. Metheylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is an enzyme involved in the metabolism of folic acid, a B-vitamin. In humans, a polymorphism in MTHFR (677C→T) is linked to increased risk of stroke, but the mechanisms remain unknown. The Mthfr+/− mice mimic a phenotype described in humans at bp677. Using this mouse model, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of MTHFR deficiency on stroke outcome. Male Mthfr+/− and wildtype littermate control mice were aged (~1.5-year-old) and trained on the single pellet reaching task. After which the sensorimotor cortex was then damaged using photothrombosis (PT), a model for ischemic stroke. Post-operatively, animals were tested for skilled motor function, and brain tissue was processed to assess cell death. Mthfr+/− mice were impaired in skilled reaching 2-weeks after stroke but showed some recovery at 5-weeks compared to wild types after PT damage. Within the ischemic brain, there was increased expression of active caspase-3 and reduced levels of phospho-AKT in neurons of Mthfr+/− mice. Recent data suggests that astrocytes may play a significant role after damage, the impact of MTHFR and ischemic investigated the impact of MTHFR-deficiency on astrocyte function. MTHFR-deficient primary astrocytes showed reduced cell viability after exposure to hypoxia compared to controls. Increased immunofluorescence staining of active caspase-3 and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha were also observed. The data suggest that MTHFR deficiency decreases recovery after stroke by reducing neuronal and astrocyte viability.

Previous evidence suggests that a significant decline in cognitive ability begins during middle-age and continues to deteriorate with increase in age. Recent work has demonstrated the potential rejuvenation impact of growth differentiation factor-11 (GDF-11) in aged mice. We carried out experiments to evaluate the impact of a single dose of recombinant (rGDF-11) on short-term visual and spatial memory in middle-aged male mice. On the novel object recognition task, we observed middle-aged mice treated rGDF-11 showed improved performance on the novel object recognition task. However, middle-aged mice did not show increased expression of phosphorylated-Smad2/3, a downstream effector of GDF-11. We noted however that the expression of the transcription factor, Sox2 was increased within the dentate gyrus. Our data suggest that a single injection of rGDF-11 contributes to improvements in cognitive function of middle-aged animals, which may be critical in the preservation of short-term memory capacity in old age.

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is a thrombolytic agent commonly used in the treatment of ischemic stroke. While the thrombolytic effects of tPA have been well established, the impact of this blood-brain barrier (BBB) crossing drug on neurons is not known. Given the widespread use of tPA in the clinical setting and the strict therapeutic window established for effective use of the drug, we examined the molecular mechanisms mediating the impact of tPA on postnatal cortical neurons isolated from the mouse brain. Dissociated postnatal primary cortical neurons were treated with tPA and the effects on neuron survival were evaluated. Pharmacological inhibitors of several signaling pathways previously implicated in neuroprotection (mTOR, JAK/STAT, MAPK and PKA-dependent mechanisms) were used to pinpoint the mechanistic effectors of tPA on neuron survival in vitro. We report here that tPA treatment results in a time-dependent neuroprotective effect on postnatal cortical neurons that relies predominantly on Janus kinase (JAK) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling mechanisms. Taken together, these data suggest that tPA promotes neuroprotection in a temporally-regulated manner and that both JAK and mTOR signaling effectors are critical mediators of this neuroprotective effect. The results suggest the possibility of targeting these defined mechanisms to potentially expand the therapeutic window for tPA.

This protocol outlines the preparation of embryonic mouse retinal explants, which provides an effective technique to analyze neurite outgrowth in central nervous system (CNS) neurons. This validated ex vivo system, which displays limited neuronal death, is highly reproducible and particularly amenable to manipulation. Our previously published studies involving embryonic chick or adult mouse retinal explants were instrumental in the preparation of this protocol; aspects of these previous techniques were combined, adopted and optimized. This protocol thus permits more efficient analysis of neurite growth. Briefly, the retina is dissected from the embryonic mouse eye using precise techniques that take into account the small size of the embryonic eye. The approach applied ensures that the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) layer faces the adhesion substrate on coated cover slips. Neurite growth is clear, well-delineated and readily quantifiable. These retinal explants can therefore be used to examine the neurite growth effects elicited by potential therapeutic agents.

Proteoglycans (PGs) are a diverse family of proteins that consist of one or more glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, covalently linked to a core protein. PGs are major components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and play critical roles in development, normal function and damage-response of the central nervous system (CNS). GAGs are classified based on their disaccharide subunits, into the following major groups: chondroitin sulfate (CS), heparan sulfate (HS), heparin (HEP), dermatan sulfate (DS), keratan sulfate (KS) and hyaluronic acid (HA). All except HA are modified by sulfation, giving GAG chains specific charged structures and binding properties. While significant neuroscience research has focused on the role of one PG family member, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG), there is ample evidence in support of a role for the other PGs in regulating CNS function in normal and pathological conditions. This review discusses the role of all the identified PG family members (CS, HS, HEP, DS, KS and HA) in normal CNS function and in the context of pathology. Understanding the pleiotropic roles of these molecules in the CNS may open the door to novel therapeutic strategies for a number of neurological conditions.

OBJECTIVES: Stroke is a leading cause of disability and death world-wide. Increased levels of homocysteine are associated with risk for stroke. Metheylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) generates methyl groups to aid in the metabolism of homocysteine. A polymorphism in MTHFR (677C→T) has been identified in 5–15% of North American and European populations. Individuals with the TT genotype have elevated homocysteine concentrations and have increased risk of stroke. Using the MTHFR mouse model, the objective of this study was to investigate the mechanisms through which MTHFR deficiency may increase the risk of stroke. METHODS: We isolated primary neurons and astrocytes cells from MTHFR-deficient mice and exposed cells to hypoxia for 6 hours. Twenty-four hours after damage, we measured cell viability. In vivo, using aged (∼1.5-year-old) male Mthfr(+/−) and wildtype littermate controls, the sensorimotor cortex was damaged using the photothrombosis model to induce ischemic stroke. Post-operatively, animals were tested on skilled motor function, and brain tissue was processed for analysis. Additionally, in adult male mice using MRI we measured lesion volume two and four weeks after damage. RESULTS: Primary neurons and astrocytes from MTHFR-deficient embryos showed reduced cell viability through increased trypan blue staining and MTT release. In vivo, aged Mthfr(+/−) mice were impaired in skilled motor function after damage. Using MRI, adult Mthfr(+/−) brains were more severely damaged compared to wild-type littermates. In vitro and in vivo, we observed increased apoptosis in Mthfr(+/−) animals. Furthermore, methionine adenosyltransferase II alpha (MAT2A) protein levels were increased in the stroke hemisphere of wild-type mice. In the non-PT hemisphere of Mthfr(+/−) mice there was an increase in hypoxia induced factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) protein and growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11). CONCLUSIONS: Together, our results suggest that Mthfr(+/−) mice are more vulnerable to ischemic stroke damage. This is through reducing neuronal and astrocyte viability after damage, as well as changes in methylation and cellular response. FUNDING SOURCES: This research was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Council of Ontario Universities, and Fonds de la recherché en santé Québec (FRSQ).

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are best characterized for their ability to control cell-cycle progression. However, CDK family members are now known to regulate biological processes outside of the cell cycle, including transcription and neuronal development. Multiple CDKs (both cell cycle and non-cell-cycle related) have been associated with neurological conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Parkinson's disease (PD). This review will explore the emerging evidence supporting a role for CDKs in neuronal death, focusing on mechanisms involved in the dopaminergic neurodegeneration of PD. An improved understanding of CDK involvement in cell death signaling could facilitate the development of innovative strategies to halt or slow down the characteristic death processes that are associated with some neurodegenerative conditions.