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This paper deals with the combination of historical research, historical methods and the use of images as a historical source. It focuses more precisely on methodological issues about family photographs in the decades that follow the invention of photography in 1839. We will wonder how these images can be considered as intimate sources. By analysing a family portrait of the Queen Victoria and her four eldest children by Roger Fenton (1854), we will try to understand this picture in serial and put it in relation to other photographs from different families. The second part of this paper will analyse how this portrait of the Queen, besides strong visual norms, can be considered as a place of freedom in the representation of motherhood, childhood and family ties., Cet article s’inscrit dans la lignée des réflexions sur l’articulation entre histoire, méthodes historiques et images. Le propos porte plus spécifiquement sur la photographie de famille, source visuelle appartenant à la sphère intime, dans les décennies qui suivent l’invention de la technique photographique en 1839. Cette étude est l’occasion de revenir sur quelques enjeux méthodologiques, portant notamment sur les questions de la variation des échelles et de l’approche sérielle des images. À travers l’analyse d’un portrait de famille privé du milieu du XIXe siècle représentant la reine Victoria et ses quatre premiers enfants (1854), nous verrons comment il est possible, d’une part, d’articuler cette photographie avec des images issues de différents corpus et, d’autre part, de la replacer dans une trajectoire familiale singulière. L’enjeu est de comprendre dans quelle mesure ce portrait, support de normes formels, peut être considéré comme un lieu de liberté visuelle dans la représentation de cette mère, de ses enfants et des liens familiaux.

Nineteenth-century businesswomen were almost entirely neglected, the historiography having adopted the hypothesis of the withdrawal of women from the business sphere after the eighteenth century. A growing body of literature is challenging this view, claiming that women did in fact actively contribute to the industrialization process and occupied key positions as investors and entrepreneurs, and revealing the constant and non-negligible presence of women at the head of businesses. This article reviews recent literature on women entrepreneurship in the nineteenth century. On the one hand, we analyze the reasons invoked by recent studies in order to explain why female entrepreneurship has so long remained ignored. The separate spheres ideology, the rise of industrialization, legal systems, the narrow definition of entrepreneurship and the issue of the sources might have contributed to maintain the idea that women would have withdrawn from business. On the other hand, we review the methods used in the recent revisionist literature in order to identify women entrepreneurs in the historical records and to assess the importance of their participation in entrepreneurial activities. Whereas some sources (tax rolls, censuses, directories, articles of association, etc.) help drawing general conclusions about female entrepreneurship supporting quantitative research, others (private family papers and objects, newspapers and advertisements, public and legal records) are particularly helpful for qualitative investigations permitting to draw in-depth portraits of these women. Une littérature récente remet en question le présupposé, dominant dans l’historiographie, selon lequel les femmes se seraient retirées du monde des affaires au XIXe siècle. Elle montre en effet que l’entrepreneuriat féminin n’a pas disparu au XIXe siècle. Les femmes ont activement contribué au processus d’industrialisation, à des postes clés, en tant qu’investisseurs et en tant qu’entrepreneurs. Cette revue de littérature fait, d’une part, le bilan des facteurs d’invisibilisation des femmes dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, tel qu’invoqués par les récents travaux. L’idéologie des sphères distinctes, le développement du capitalisme industriel, les droits nationaux, la définition restrictive de l’entrepreneuriat ou encore le problème des sources sont invoqués comme ayant contribué à entretenir l’idée que les femmes se seraient retirées du monde des affaires au XIXe siècle. Par ailleurs, afin de délivrer des pistes de recherche et des outils pour de futurs travaux, cette revue de littérature présente les sources et les méthodes utilisées dans les récentes études. Alors que certaines sources (rôles d’imposition, recensements, annuaires, actes de sociétés, etc.) permettent de dresser des conclusions générales sur les femmes en affaires et viennent plutôt soutenir des recherches quantitatives, d’autres (documents et objets privés, articles de journaux et publicités, documents publics et légaux) sont plutôt appropriées aux recherches qualitatives et permettent de dresser un portrait approfondi de ces femmes.

In the ten years between 1840 and 1850, the percentage of free people of color in New Orleans' overall population dropped from 20% to 10%. This significant demographic and social phenomenon can be partially explained by the emigration of this population due to the growing hostility towards them in the Southern United States. In fact, the beginning of this movement can be traced to 1803 and the Louisiana Purchase, with its culmination in the 1840s and 50s. In this context, and as a part of the control of this population's spatial mobility, the municipality of New Orleans delivered passports to free people willing to leave, and to the enslaved following their owners out of the city. This paper will analyze the passports, available at the New Orleans Public Library, awarded between 1818 and 1831. In examination of this source, sociological considerations will be addressed in hopes of revealing the identities of the free people of color willing to leave New Orleans at this time - where were they trying to go? Were they native of New Orleans? Or did they have a prior migration experience arriving in the city, such the refugees of Saint Domingue in 1809 and the Northern population after the Louisiana Purchase? Were they planning to leave alone? Or with their families? Were they women or men? Were they slaveholders? Did they have property? Where did they live? Did they have any prior connection to the place they were headed? Did they really leave? Did they come back to New Orleans? These questions and others will be considered in this discussion. In short, this paper will attempt to draw a sociological profile of these individuals before their emigration, the necessary first step in understanding and explaining this migratory phenomenon itself.

Publishing, albeit in many cases irregular, became one of the main activities of provincial scientific societies from the 1860s. In this way, the natural history societies and field clubs contributed to the inflation of scientific publications were thought to disrupt the progress of science. As a remedy, the creation of regional and regular periodicals instead of the publishing by individual societies was suggested. The appearance of the regional federations of natural history societies in the 1870s shows that the need to publish became even greater. The Midland Union of Natural History Societies (1877-1895) was founded with the aim of “imagining” a Midland community of naturalists through its monthly Midland Naturalist (1878-1893). Hardly had this regional begun to gain some readership than the British Association for the Advancement of Science launched its Corresponding Societies scheme in 1883 to organise the work of the provincial scientific societies. The impact of this national plan on the emerging regional science periodicals like Midland Naturalist was destructive as it encouraged publishing of individual associations. By looking at the publishing practices of the scientific associations in the English Midlands, this paper seeks to revise the historiography of provincial science publishing.

Who got power from apprenticeship in nineteenth-century France?In many towns and cities of nineteenth-century France, apprenticeship survived the end of guilds. It was generally considered as a domestic arrangement, modeled on the father-son relationships, yet it was also a contracts, enforced by labor courts. This paper first discusses the borders between apprenticeship and domestic service, showing that the presence of apprenticeships remodeled power relationships in the master's or mistress' household. It then focuses on bourgeois paternal authority figures (labor court judges, supervisers in charitable societies) who tried to influence relationships between the apprentices (who mostly had popular backgrounds), their parents and their masters or mistresses. It finally circumscribes the opportunities for agency that were open for apprentices in the context of such complex power relationships.; Dans bien des villes françaises du XIXe siècle, l'apprentissage survit à la fin des corporations. Généralement reconnu comme une relation domestique, modelée sur la relation père-fils, l'apprentissage est toutefois aussi un contrat, dont les conseils de prud'hommes doivent faire respecter les dispositions. L'article discute tout d'abord de la fixation des frontières entre apprentissage et domesticité, soulignant que les rapports de pouvoir au sein du ménage du maître ou de la maîtresse sont reconfigurés par l'apprentissage. Il évoque ensuite les figures de l'autorité paternelle bourgeoise (prud'hommes et « patrons » des patronages) qui interviennent dans les rapports entre les apprenti·es, en majorité issu·es de milieux populaires, leurs parents et leurs maîtres·ses. Il mesure enfin les marges de manœuvre que ces jeux de pouvoir ouvraient, ou non, aux apprenti·es.

International audience; The aim of this paper is to pursue the work of Asdal (2011), focusing on limitations of accounting to act at a distance. Drawing on insights offered by notions of accounting inscription and territorialization, we identify such factors that inhibit the efficiency of action at a distance exploring daily quantification practices in organizations. Drawing on the introduction of accounting in French Guiana penal colonies in mid-nineteenth century, we highlight series of choices and effects faced by actors in charge of accounting. We point out combinations of such effects and choices that lead to emergence of inefficiency factors of action at a distance. Recording procedures may entrench preexisting practices that they are supposed to prevent. Monetary valuation and data aggregation processes, isolating quantified objects from larger causal relationships, may generate unexpected effects than those planned initially; Cet article s’inscrit dans la lignée des travaux de Asdal (2011), sur les limites de la comptabilité à agir efficacement à distance. En combinant les notions d’inscription comptable et de territorialisation, nous montrons comment des facteurs d’inefficacité de l’action à distance peuvent émerger des pratiques de quantification quotidiennes. A partir d’un cas historique de l’introduction d’un système comptable dans les bagnes de Guyane au XIXe siècle, nous avons détaillons un ensemble de choix et d’effets auxquels étaient confrontés les acteurs en charge de la comptabilité. Nous montrons comment des combinaisons de certains choix et effets réduisent l’efficacité de l’action à distance. Les procédures d’enregistrement comptable peuvent favoriser la pérennisation de pratiques préexistantes qu’elles étaient censées modifier. Les processus de valorisation monétaire et d’agrégation des données, en isolant les objets quantifiés d’autres relations de causalité, génèrent des effets inattendus par rapport à ceux prévus.

One of the key areas where the United States is generally contrasted to France is law. Yet pitting the common law tradition against Napoleon's civil code obscures the diversity of the French justice system, as well as the differences between English and US experiences. This paper tells how, when preoccupied with reforming judicial procedure, both before and after the Civil War, New Yorkers were inspired by some lesser known corners of French justice, such as the conciliatory “justices of the peace” and the lay, elected, but official “commercial courts”. It draws on research by Amalia Kessler on the birth of the US “adversarial tradition” and complements it with a focus on merchants and their disputes. It shows that the relationships of New York merchants with the legal system were, in the first half of the century, remarkably similar to those of their French counterparts, and in many respects shaped by shared trans-Atlantic experiences. Ironically, though, explicit attempts at importing elements from the French judicial system happened, in the late 1840s to mid-1870s, were instrumental in strengthening the idea of a distinctly US national character with, among other, procedural implications. They ultimately led to the invention of what was deemed a specifically American way to deal with (commercial) disputes.

One of the key areas where the United States is generally contrasted to France is law. Yet pitting the common law tradition against Napoleon's civil code obscures the diversity of the French justice system, as well as the differences between English and US experiences. This paper tells how, when preoccupied with reforming judicial procedure, both before and after the Civil War, New Yorkers were inspired by some lesser known corners of French justice, such as the conciliatory “justices of the peace” and the lay, elected, but official “commercial courts”. It draws on research by Amalia Kessler on the birth of the US “adversarial tradition” and complements it with a focus on merchants and their disputes. It shows that the relationships of New York merchants with the legal system were, in the first half of the century, remarkably similar to those of their French counterparts, and in many respects shaped by shared trans-Atlantic experiences. Ironically, though, explicit attempts at importing elements from the French judicial system happened, in the late 1840s to mid-1870s, were instrumental in strengthening the idea of a distinctly US national character with, among other, procedural implications. They ultimately led to the invention of what was deemed a specifically American way to deal with (commercial) disputes.

International audience; This paper proposes a conceptualisation of the main modalities of historical consciousness in Mexican historiography during the nineteenth century. These modalities are based on the analysis of different overarching historical narratives that were intended to produce a new national identity after the War of Independence (1810-1821). These narratives disclose different notions about the utility of historical knowledge and the relationship between past and present. Consequently, in the first place it is presented a brief discussion of the interaction between the concepts of historical consciousness and national identity. Secondly a succinct historical background of the Colonial period is provided. Finally, through the examination of specific historical works and authors, the three modalities of historical consciousness that have been identified are presented; the past as will, the past as experience and the past as memory.

International audience; It is abound the research on the formation, rise and failure of the financial and industrial network under-taken by the Loring-Heredia-Larios triangle, bourgeois families who introduced the Industrial Revolution in the south of Andalusia. On the contrary, there are almost nonexistent studies from the perspective of the mentality that sustained their business, social and ethical model in the algid decades of their action (1850-1860). In this paper we propose some hypotheses about the ideological structures of bourgeois group and point out some keys, clues and signs for a future reconstruction of this kind, which so far has not been incardinated that early and failed malaguenan industrial revolution in streams thinking of that time.; Abundan las investigaciones en la formación, apogeo y fracaso del entramado financiero e industrial emprendido por el triángulo Loring-Heredia-Larios, familias burguesas que introdujeron la revolución industrial en el sur de Andalucía. Por el contrario, son casi inexistentes estudios desde la perspectiva de la mentalidad que sostuvo su modelo empresarial, social y ético en las décadas álgidas de su actuación (1850-1860). En este artículo proponemos algunas hipótesis sobre las estructuras ideológicas del grupo burgués, y señalamos algunas claves, pistas e indicios para una futura reconstrucción de este tipo, ya que hasta el momento no se ha incardinado aquella temprana y fallida revolución industrial malagueña en las corrientes de pensamiento de la época.

Desde fines del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX, la ciudad de Santiago de Chile conoce un importante proceso de transformación general en el cual la ciudad y lo urbano comienzan a tomar una gran importancia socio-económica y discursiva. A partir de las fuentes que nos ofrecen los debates parlamentarios y municipales, los textos legislativos, la prensa, la literatura científica de la época y los archivos empresariales, mostramos que la construcción del alcantarillado de Santiago se nos presenta en este trabajo como un fenómeno temporal que condensa lo económico, lo técnico, lo político y lo discursivo en el ejercicio del poder y de la administración pública. During the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the twentieth century, the city of Santiago, Chile experienced an important process of transformation in which the city and the urban started to assume socio-economic and discursive prominence. Using evidence gathered from parliamentary and municipal debates, legislative text, the press, scientific literature from the era and business archives this paper shows that the construction of Santiago's sewage system was a phenomenon that condensed the economic, the technical, political and the discursive in the exercise of power and the administration of the public during that time.

L’émergence de savoirs scientifiques à la fin du XIXe siècle accompagne la décision politique et affirme l’équilibre fragile de l’État républicain. Dans le domaine pénal, la Société générale des prisons (1877) à la suite de la Société royale des prisons (1819), s’intéresse à la prison, à la réforme pénale fortement liée à la question sociale. Appuyée sur sa revue, les congrès internationaux, le dynamisme de ses membres réformateurs sociaux actifs, la SGP construit un savoir expert, « la science pénitentiaire ». Dans cet article, nous nous attacherons aux origines réformatrices d’une science pénitentiaire, aux vecteurs de la construction et de la circulation de ce savoir expert, ainsi qu’à ses usages et effets. La science pénitentiaire sera particulièrement féconde dans la production d’une politique pénale forte, et va devenir un savoir qui fonde le politique, une science de gouvernement. The emergence of scientific knowledge at the end of the XIXth century accompanies the political decision and asserts the fragile balance of the Republican state. In the penal field, “La Société Générale des prisons” (General Society of Prisons) (1877) following the Royal Society of prisons (1819), gets interested by the prison, and by the penal reform which was strongly bound(connected) to the social question. Based on its journal, on the international conferences, the dynamism of her active socially reforming members, the SGP builds an expert knowledge, the penology. In this paper, we shall focus on to the reforming origins of a prison science, to the vectors which have built and conveyed this expert knowledge, as well as to its practices and to their impacts. The penal science will be particularly fruitful in producing a strong penal and criminal policy, and will become a knowledge which builds politics, a science of government. La aparición de los conocimientos científicos en el siglo XIX acompaña la decisión política y afirma el frágil equilibrio del Estado republicano. En materia penal, la Sociedad General de la Prisiones (1877) después de la Real Sociedad de Prisiones (1819), se interesa à la prisión, à la reforma penal fuertemente ligada a la cuestión social. Se apoyó en su revista, los congresos internacionales, el dinamismo de sus miembros reformadores sociales activos, la SGP construye un conocimiento experto, «la ciencia penitenciaria». En este artículo, nos centramos en los orígenes reformadores de una ciencia penitenciaria, en los vectores de la construcción y circulación de este conocimiento experto, así como sus usos y efectos. La ciencia penitenciaria será especialmente fructífera en la producción de una política penal fuerte, y se convertirá en un conocimiento fundador de la política, una ciencia de gobierno.

This paper analyzes what were the reactions to the Americans Peninsula events and decisions of the metropolis against these same events between 1808 and 1823., Este trabajo analiza cuales fueron las reacciones de la Peninsula ante los acontecimientos americanos y las decisiones adoptadas por la metropoli frente a esos mismos acontecimientos, entre 1808 y 1823.

This paper analyzes the stages and the main characteristics of the process of international insertion of the new Latin American states from the independence until 1898. The question of international recognition of independence is studied, the interference of the powers in the politics of the new states as well as the inter-American conflicts., Este trabajo analiza las distintas etapas y las principales caracteristicas del proceso de insercion internacional de los nuevos estados latinoamericanos a partir de las independencias y hasta 1898. Se estudia la cuestion del reconocimiento internacional de las independencias, las injerencias de las potencias en la politica de los nuevos estados asi como los conflictos interamericanos.

This paper analyzes the evolution of baptismal practices in Paris in the nineteenth century (greater delay between birth and religious ceremony, baptisms on sunday, "ondoiement") and exposes some explanations : distance from the Church rule, impact of the Industrial revolution, familial interpretation of the religious ceremonies..., Les pratiques du baptême évoluent grandement à Paris au XIXe siècle : retard croissant du baptême, baptêmes de plus en plus dominicaux, recours croissant à l'ondoiement par autorisation ou en péril de mort. L'article expose les motifs de ces évolutions : prise de distance par rapport aux normes religieuses, prise en compte de nouvelles aspirations familiales, impact de la révolution industrielle...

This paper analyzes the evolution of baptismal practices in Paris in the nineteenth century (greater delay between birth and religious ceremony, baptisms on sunday, "ondoiement") and exposes some explanations : distance from the Church rule, impact of the Industrial revolution, familial interpretation of the religious ceremonies...; Les pratiques du baptême évoluent grandement à Paris au XIXe siècle : retard croissant du baptême, baptêmes de plus en plus dominicaux, recours croissant à l'ondoiement par autorisation ou en péril de mort. L'article expose les motifs de ces évolutions : prise de distance par rapport aux normes religieuses, prise en compte de nouvelles aspirations familiales, impact de la révolution industrielle...