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Background: While postwar suburban migration established suburbs as relatively affluent, homogeneous white enclaves distinct from the urban core, recent waves of suburbanization and exurbanization have been spurred largely by rapid growth in the nonwhite population. While these increases in suburban racial/ethnic diversity represent a significant evolution of the traditional "chocolate city, vanilla suburbs" dichotomy, scholars have expressed concern that they are worsening racial/ethnic segregation among suburban public school students. Objective: In this study, we document shifts in the racial imbalance of suburban schools in terms of several racial/ethnic and geographic dimensions (i.e., multiracial, black-white; between and within suburban districts, among localities). In addition, we extend the urban/suburban dichotomy to provide initial evidence on changes in racial balance in metropolitan exurbs. Finally, we use inferential models to directly examine the impact of changes in racial/ethnic diversity on shifts in racial imbalance. Research Design: Using demographic data from the National Center of Education Statistics Common Core of Data on 209 U.S. metropolitan areas, we provide a descriptive analysis of changes in segregation within and between urban, suburban, and exurban localities from 2002 to 2012. We measure segregation using Theil's entropy index, which quantifies racial balance across geographic units. We assess the relationship between demographic change and change in segregation via a series of longitudinal fixed-effects models. Results: Longitudinal analyses indicate that increases in racial/ethnic diversity are positively related to change in racial imbalance. However, observed increases in diversity were generally insufficient to produce meaningful increases in segregation. As a result, suburbs and exurbs, like urban areas, experienced little change in segregation, although trends were generally in a negative direction and more localities experienced meaningful declines in segregation than meaningful increases. Findings are less encouraging for suburbs and exurbs than for urban areas and underscore the intractability of black-white racial imbalance and the emerging spatial imbalance of Asians and whites. We also document an important shift in the geographic distribution of segregation, with suburbs now accounting for a plurality of metropolitan segregation. Conclusions: Contrary to previous researchers, we do not find evidence that suburban and exurban schools are resegregating, although we fail to document meaningful progress towards racial equity. Moreover, while suburbs are not necessarily resegregating, we find that segregation is suburbanizing, and now accounts for the largest share of segregation of any locality. We conclude with a discussion of recommendations for policy and research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Schools face pressure to promote equitable student outcomes as the achievement gap continues to persist. The authors examine different ways in which social capital has been conceptualized as well as prior theory and research on its formation and consequences. While some theoretical and empirical work conceptualizes social capital as a mechanism for prosocial outcomes, other scholars address it as an apparatus of social status. Purpose: This study was conducted to advance knowledge about (a) the validity of measuring social capital as an organizational construct, (b) the equity of social capital distribution in schools, and (c) the relationship between school social capital and academic achievement. Research Design: In this paper, the authors examine these possibilities using data collected from 96 Midwestern high schools. Confirmatory factor analysis, hierarchical linear modeling, and structural equation modeling were employed to depict the relationships among social capital, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement in schools. Findings/Results: The authors found that variance in social capital was significantly related to school membership and that confirmatory factor analysis supported the construction of a school social capital measure. Moreover, more than half of the variance in social capital is unrelated to social class, and social capital is a positive predictor of academic achievement. Conclusions/Recommendations: Because of its positive relation to achievement, investments in the development of social capital may be worthwhile. Interventions designed to develop social capital in schools should be guided by efforts to strengthen access to school-based resources in poor and low achieving schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 1990, the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program (MPCP) has enabled low and middle-income parents to attend private Milwaukee schools at state expense. In 2010, the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction released, for the first time, results of newly required state standardized tests for students using the MPCP. This article uses an original data set from Milwaukee’s two-decade-old private school voucher program to test several hypotheses on the impact of the first public release of test scores on school enrollment patterns. Specifically, the article uses quantitative methods to test (a) whether enrollment decreased at lower performing schools, (b) whether low-performing schools were more likely to close compared with higher performing schools, and (c) whether historical school-level growth patterns were significantly different after the release of test scores. The article finds that enrollment increases at higher performing schools were larger than at low-performing schools. However, the link between test scores and enrollment patterns disappears after controlling for available school-level characteristics. The analysis provides a first peek at how a transparency intervention affects enrollment patterns in an education marketplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine how high school locale moderates the association between same-sex sexuality (SSS) and postsecondary outcomes, including four-year college enrollment and four-year degree completion. Our results suggest that the link between same-sex sexuality and college completion is complex, varying by gender, high school locale, and the timing of same-sex sexuality. We find that sexual minority men who attended a rural high school enroll in and complete college at higher rates than their heterosexual peers, although this varies by the timing of same-sex sexuality. Sexual minority women are less likely than heterosexual women to enroll in and complete college, and high school locale does not moderate this association. We discuss these gender differences and the role of high school locale in shaping both high school and college outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the impact of a student's race on disciplinary action and academic achievement in the U.S., particularly focusing on race gaps in North Carolina's educational system. It addresses the use of demographic methods to investigate the effects of race gaps on individual students, peer groups, and overall school composition. It comments on the importance of students' family and the distribution of students across the state to explaining demographic differences in middle schools in North Carolina.

As the "land of opportunity" and arguably the greatest country in the world, the United States continues to change -- culturally, racially, and linguistically. Reports abound regarding the changing demographics of the country and its schools. Over a 2-decade span (1989-2009), the percentage of "minority" students in public schools (referring to Hispanic American, African American, Asian American, and Native American students) increased from 32% to 45%. This trend is expected to continue, with these 4 groups soon becoming the numerical majority nationally, as is the case already in many school districts. With these changes come growing pains. Special education often receives attention, including debates and litigation, regarding disproportionality or over-representation, particularly among African American students (especially males). This albatross has plagued the field for decades. This article presents an overview of demographics in schools and special education, discusses overrepresentation, and provides suggestions for much-needed changes now and in the future. It is guided by the primary question: What does the future hold for Black, Hispanic, and English language learners in special education? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Several studies have identified that applicants who apply to college via early admissions programs tend to be White and affluent. Because researchers have also identified benefits with applying early, akin to a 100 point boost on the SAT, such programs raise questions around equity in the college admissions process. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study/Research Design: We used cross-classified hierarchical generalized linear modeling to examine predictors of enrolling due to being admitted through an early decision or early action program in a national dataset of 88,086 students. Although research has investigated the types of institutions that tend to offer early action and early decision programs, the types of students who apply to these programs, and the types of high schools that they come from, no prior study has examined these three contexts simultaneously. Findings/Results: When controlling for high school, individual, and institutional characteristics, receiving private college counseling was the strongest predictor of enrolling due to early admissions. We suggest that elevated levels of cultural capital help explain why White and affluent students are more likely to enroll vía early admissions. Conclusions/Recommendations: Our findings indicate that early admissions programs, and in particular, early decision, perpetuate social privilege and stratification. At a minimum, institutions need to look inward and ask serious questions about the patterns of who applies and is accepted vía early policies, and the implications of offering advantages to students who generally already are advantaged in the admissions process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study makes a distinction between a school having high attrition and one having difficulties in hiring. It does so by exploring the relationship between definitions of hard-to-staff schools, school demographics, and school conditions that are often associated with a school being hard-to-staff. Research Design: The study relies on a survey of Ohio schools to ascertain information on vacancies for 2004-2005. The survey also collected information on principal perceptions of the impact of various school conditions and difficulty in hiring. Information was received about 3,371 teaching vacancies in 1,040 schools. The overall response rate from schools was 67%. In the first stage of analysis, a descriptive analysis explored the relationship between school demographic factors, definitions of hard-to-staff, and school conditions. In the second stage, three regression models were tested for seven definitions of hard-to-staff to determine whether school demographics and conditions were predictive of being hard-to-staff under any of the definitions. Findings: The analyses showed that school demographics such as poverty, student ethnicity, and school location are not predictive of difficulty in hiring in general. School conditions such as central office help in hiring are more important than the demographic characteristics typically associated with a school being hard-to-staff. Conclusions: How we define hard-to-staff matters. The characteristics of a hard-to-staff school vary depending on the definition used. Thus, we need to be more specific in defining hard-to-staff schools so that both research on these schools and resource targeting by policy makers yield better results. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This qualitative case study examined the beliefs and practice of two teachers in an international school in order to inform debates about the potential of education for critical, transnational, and multiple citizenship. Data from interviews and observations indicated that teachers conceptualized and taught citizenship in ways that reflected the fluid and evolving nature of civic identity, rights, and obligations. However, the teachers noted challenges in linking their students' daily civic experiences and academic programs, and reconciling the school's civic ethos with the wider, nation-centric discursive practices of citizenship in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: School closure is becoming an increasingly common policy response to underperforming urban schools. Districts typically justify closure decisions by pointing to schools' low performance on measures required by No Child Left Behind. Closures disproportionately fall on schools with high percentages of poor and working-class students of color. Few studies have examined how students interpret or respond to school closures. Purpose: Our purpose was to document narratives articulated by students about the closure of their high school. Doing so is important because students, particularly students of color from low-income families, are often left out of policy decisions that affect their lives. Population/Participants: Research participants were recruited from the population of youth who had attended the closed school and who remained in the district during the subsequent year. Twenty-three percent of students at the school were African American, 75 % were Latino, and 2 % were White. Over 90 % of students were eligible for free and reduced lunch. A total of 106 students responded to surveys and peer interviews, and 12 youth who had dropped out of school participated in focus groups. Research Design: This was a youth participatory action research (YPAR) study, designed collaboratively by former Jefferson students, university researchers, and adult community members. Data sources included open-ended surveys, peer interviews, focus groups, and field notes describing public events and YPAR meetings. Findings: Our data show that most respondents did not agree with the decision to close their school. Student disagreement surfaced two counternarratives. First, students critiqued the way the decision was made--they felt excluded from the decision-making process that led to closure. Second, they critiqued the rationale for the decision, which suggested that students needed to be rescued from a failing school. Students articulated features of Jefferson that they valued, such as trusting relationships with adults, connection to place, and sense of belonging, which they felt were discounted by the decision. Conclusions/Recommendations: Evidence from this study lends support to developmental and political justifications for robust youth participation in equity-based school reform. By developmental justification, we mean evidence that young people were ready to participate, which counters discourses about youth as immature or unprepared. By political justification, we mean evidence that youth articulated interests that were discounted in the decision-making process and that challenged normative assumptions about school quality. In our conclusion, we point to examples of expanded roles that students could play in decision-making processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After a review of the literature elucidating the status quo for students experiencing homelessness, this article shares the results of a mixed methods study. With a phenomenolqgical qualitative emphasis, the mixed methods study explored the perceptions of parents and children experiencing homelessness regarding their academic needs and the services they considered to be helpful. The researchers also examined archival data associated with an after school tutoring program offered at an agency that works with families experiencing homelessness. A paired samples t test indicated a significant difference the number of failed courses for participants in the tutoring program over a one-year period. Difference in grade point average was not significant over the same period of time. The article shares implications and recommendations for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Many children of immigrants are not enrolled in high schools that sufficiently meet their needs, and subsequently, many are not making a successful transition to, and/or successfully completing, higher education. As immigration grows in the United States, educators and policy makers must understand how the educational processes for children of immigrants differ from nonimmigrants. Because expectations for higher education are a necessary, though insufficient, step toward college attendance and degree attainment, and because students have these attitudes influenced by the schools they attend, I examine high school composition for its effects on educational expectations and how compositional effects differ between children of immigrants and nonimmigrants. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study: This study intends to be another step on the path toward understanding the educational processes of children of immigrants specifically, and of all students more broadly, as the immigrant population grows in U.S. schools. Toward those ends, this study is based on two overarching research questions: (1) How do the immigrant compositions of U.S. secondary schools affect the educational expectations of all students? (2) How do the compositions of U.S. secondary schools affect the educational expectations of children of immigrants differently than nonimmigrant students? Research Design: The research questions are addressed via secondary data analysis using data from the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS.2002/2004), which were collected by the National Center for Education Statistics. I explore school composition effects on a binary dependent variable indicating whether a 12th-grade student expects to complete a graduate or professional degree. This study emphasizes a critical-quantitative approach by demonstrating that common theories and assumptions about educational expectations may be inaccurate for children of immigrants in today's schools. Conclusions/Recommendations: Results show that children of immigrants are affected differently by school composition than are nonimmigrants, and in ways that contradict commonly accepted theoretical views. Specifically, this analysis demonstrates that comparative and normative theories of school effects are not accurate for children of immigrants, at least not to the same degree as they are for nonimmigrants. This is a reminder to researchers and practitioners alike that subgroups of students, in this case the children of immigrants, may not be affected by schools in similar ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Seasonal researchers have developed a theory and hypotheses regarding the importance of neighborhood and school contexts for early childhood learning but have not possessed nationally representative data and precise contextual measures with which to examine their hypotheses. Purpose/Research Questions: This empirical study employs a seasonal perspective to assess the degree to which social context and race/ethnic composition--in neighborhoods and schools--affect the reading achievement growth of young children. The authors ask, Were there specific seasons when context and/or composition were particularly salient for reading achievement? Also, did accounting for context and composition challenge established appraisals of the relationship between family factors and achievement? Population: Data for a nationally representative sample of students proceeding through kindergarten and first grade came from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K). Neighborhood social and race/ethnic measures came from the 2000 Census. Research Design: This quantitative study employs a three-level model that assesses reading achievement at school entry and during three subsequent seasons. The model represents reading achievement as a time-varying process at level 1, conditional upon family socio/demographic factors at level 2, and dependent on social context and race/ethnic composition at level 3. Findings/Results: Neighborhood social context mattered substantially for students' reading achievement levels at school entry and for their reading achievement growth during the summer. The proportion of neighborhood residents from minority race/ethnic groups was not associated with reading achievement at school entry or during the summer season. During the school year, school social context to as associated with reading growth during kindergarten, and school social context and race/ethnic composition were associated with reading growth during first grade. Conclusions/Recommendations: The magnitude and frequency of contextual effects found in this national sample have considerable implications for achieving educational equality in the United States. The authors recommend that policy makers attend to the quality of neighborhood and school settings as a means of promoting literacy development for young children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences in the proportions of students identified as having special educational needs (SENs) across ethnic groups have historically been of concern in the United Kingdom and the United States. However, the absence of student-level data has hindered investigation of the reasons for such disproportionality. The authors present an analysis of the 2005 Pupil Level Annual School Census for 6.5 million students aged 5 to 16 years in England. Logistic regression analyses were completed to calculate the odds ratios of having identified SENs both before and after adjusting for the influence of age, gender, and socioeconomic disadvantage (poverty). Poverty and gender had stronger associations than ethnicity with the overall prevalence of SENs. However, after controlling for these effects, significant over- and underrepresentation of some minority ethnic groups relative to White British students remained. The nature and degree of these disproportionalities varied across categories of SENs and minority ethnic groups and were not restricted to judgmental categories of SENs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have suggested that educational programming for students with low incidence disabilities in rural settings may be limited. In the current study, researchers surveyed special education teachers across Kentucky and collected demographic data on two exemplar districts. Results indicated that differences existed between urban and rural districts on several variables but that some rural communities in Kentucky were able to overcome barriers to the provision of educational programming for students with low incidence disabilities prevalent in other parts of rural America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context:This study draws from the growing body of research dedicated to understanding how students navigate disparate pathways to college. The extant research has demonstrated the various stages that undergird the college choice process, drawing largely from economic and sociological perspectives related to human capital formation, status attainment, and social and cultural resources. Despite this growing body of research, our understanding of the college choice process across racial groups remains inconsistent and unclear. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus: The purpose of the current study is to better understand the various factors and resources that influence the decision to attend a particular college or university, with an emphasis on how the choice process manifests across different race groups. Through the development of a series of statistical models, we offer a unique glimpse into whether a common model of college choice exists, while exploring the possibility that the process and underlying factors that influence matriculation may differ depending on one's racial group membership. Research Design: Using admissions and financial aid data from eight private colleges and universities, we performed secondary data analyses on general and race-conditional models of college choice. Analysis: The current study primarily used blocked logistic regression to understand the main and conditional effects of enrollment for the general population and across four race groups. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the college choice process unfolds differently for students depending on their racial group membership. Although our models captured a significant amount of the valance for each racial group, our study reveals important distinctions related to the college choice process based on students' academic preparation, the overall academic quality of their secondary milieu, and the strength of established feeder networks between a particular high school and college. Overall, our findings provide conceptual guidance for researchers interested in studying the college choice process and emphasize the importance of examining conditional effects to fully appreciate how the process unfolds for all students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of the literature reveals that African-American males do not achieve at the same academic levels as their White counterparts. This article reports the effectiveness of a school-based male mentoring program established by a professional school counselor in an urban high school that formed a relationship of support for male students enhancing academic achievement. The program incorporates the principles of the ASCA National Model®, empowerment theory, and Nguzo Saba. Results indicate that participation in a mentoring program can improve student academic achievement and foster personal and social growth and aspirations of success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the 2000 Public Use Sample of the U.S. census, this research examined how estimates of school enrollment and school-work patterns among Mexican-origin adolescents are affected by including or excluding young immigrants who never enrolled in U.S. schools. The analysis demonstrates that a nontrivial share of adolescents who were born in Mexico almost certainly never enrolled in U.S. schools; these youths most likely migrated to the United States for work. Excluding these adolescents from analyses substantially reduces gaps in school enrollment between Mexicans and whites and between native and foreign-born Mexicans. Excluding never-enrolled immigrant youths also changes the relationship between the duration of U.S. residence and idleness among Mexican immigrant youths, revealing that additional years of residence in the United States increase the likelihood of being out of school and not working compared to being in school and not working. Overall, inferences about the level of school enrollment and intraethnic differences in school enrollment by duration of residence depend on how those who are likely to have never enrolled in U.S. schools are treated. Inferences about interethnic differences are also affected, although they are somewhat less sensitive to this issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to rapidly changing demographics and increased racial tensions, institutions across the country have implemented diversity-related initiatives—to varying degrees—designed to promote positive intergroup relations. This increased interest has resulted in a growing body of research examining the impact of curricular and cocurricular diversity activities on a variety of out-comes and racial bias in particular Whereas past reviews have highlighted the inconsistency in the research findings thus far this study presents the first quantitative synthesis on this topic to date. The findings of this meta-analysis demonstrate that these initiatives do indeed reduce bias and that the effectiveness of this result depends on the characteristics of the program as well as the students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing successful schooling sites in multiracial regional town contexts can often be quite challenging. This paper examines the work done in one such preschooling context in a medium-sized regional town where racial and ethnic tensions are high and where many families struggle with social/emotional/economic challenges. This pre-school setting has been identified in the community and within bureaucratic structures as being successful with regard to a high level of parental engagement and a positive management of racial tensions. In order to describe this success we identify a range of practices which distinguish this educational setting from others in the town. Primarily we focus on the notion of hospitality and the practice of yarnin'. This analysis arises out of ethnographic work at the preschool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Much research is being done on Turkish immigrants and their children in Germany and the Netherlands, but almost always from a national perspective. To compare the situation for example, regarding educational outcomes across the two countries has proved to be very difficult because of different sets, selection criteria, and time periods for statistical data on immigrant populations. However, those data, which are actually available and comparable to at least some degree, already show how strongly the differences in educational attainment and labor market integration of Turkish immigrants depend on structural and systemic differences in the ways that education is organized in Germany and the Netherlands. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study: The article analyzes available data on young Turkish immigrants and native-born second generations and their educational success in the two countries with the major Turkish populations in Western Europe. It aims to direct the focus away from group background characteristics which are actually quite similar, to the influence of institutional arrangements and the way that the educational system facilitates (or not) the educational integration of Turkish youth. Research Design: The article is based on publicly collected and available data on the Turkish populations in Germany and the Netherlands. This mainly refers to the Dutch SPVA surveys and the German micro-census and Integration Survey. Conclusions/Recommendations: The findings show that more than group characteristics, systemic and institutional factors can have a decisive role in promoting or hampering the educational and labor market integration of young immigrants and the native-born second generation. The greater openness of the Dutch school system to provide "long routes" and "second chances" shows its effect in significantly higher shares of Turks in higher education. On the other side, the dual system of vocational training in Germany seems to be better suited for labor market integration, especially because apprenticeships are more practice oriented and do count as work experience for later application procedures. The Dutch system also offers better opportunities for girls than does the German system. Yet, the polarization effect between "high achievement" and "failure" of only partial integration success is greater in the Netherlands, whereas the overall advancement is slower, but also less polarizing, in Germany. In this sense, each country could learn something from its neighbor regarding those aspects of the institutional and systemic setting that apparently fail to do the job well enough. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of students enrolled in alternative settings for youth at risk of school failure has increased significantly in recent years. Students with disabilities, primarily students with emotional/behavioral disabilities and learning disabilities, are included in the population of students who are being educated in these settings. This article provides a synthesis of information gathered through (a) a comprehensive review of legislation and policy on alternative schools/programs from 48 states and (b) a national survey about alternative schools and students served completed by key contacts at state departments of education. Information is organized and discussed with regard to state-level definitions of alternative schools, enrollment criteria, school characteristics, students served, staffing, curriculum and instruction, and outcomes. In addition, information about the provision of special education in these settings and the extent to which students with disabilities enroll is included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the researchers examine the undocumented student population in Texas community colleges. The data indicate steady yearly increases in the number of undocumented students and in their percentage of the total student enrollment. The relationships between undocumented student enrollment, college size, and overall Hispanic student enrollment also are studied, and the implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: High school reform is currently at the top of the education policy making agenda after years of stagnant achievement and persistent racial and income test score gaps. Although a number of reforms offer some promise of improving U.S. high schools, small schools have emerged as the favored reform model, especially in urban areas, garnering substantial financial investments from both the private and public sectors. In the decade following 1993, the number of high schools in New York City nearly doubled, as new "small" schools opened and large high schools were reorganized into smaller learning communities. The promise of small schools to improve academic engagement, school culture, and, ultimately, student performance has drawn many supporters. However educators, policy makers, and researchers have raised concerns about the unintended consequences of these new small schools and the possibility that students "left behind" in large, established high schools are incurring negative impacts. Research Design: Using 10 years (1993-2003) of data on New York City high schools, we examine the potential systemic effects of small schools that have been identified by critics and researchers. We describe whether small schools, as compared with larger schools, serve an easier-to-educate student body, receive more resources, use those resources differently, and have better outcomes. Further we examine whether there have been changes in segregation and resource equity across the decade contemporaneous with small-school reform efforts. Findings/Results: We find that, although small schools do have higher per-pupil expenditures, lower pupil-teacher ratios, and a smaller share of special education students than larger schools, their students are disproportionately limited English proficient and poor, and their incoming students have lower test scores. Thus, the evidence is mixed with respect to claims that small schools serve an easier-to-educate student body. Systemwide, we find that segregation is relatively stable, and although there have been some changes in the distribution of resources, they are relatively modest. Conclusions/Recommendations: If small schools do eventually promote higher achievement (considering their student mix and other factors that differentiate them from larger schools), many more will be needed to house the 91.5% of the students still attending large schools. Otherwise, strategies that work for the vast majority of students who do not attend small schools will need to be identified and implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates rates and predictors of school-based services (SBSs) for 390 youth meeting criteria for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and served in the San Diego public sectors. Only 60% of youth had received an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder diagnosis; these youth were younger, male, Caucasian (versus Latino), and active to public mental health and special education (Emotional Disturbance category) at enumeration of study participants. Higher rates of SBSs (64%) were revealed than in community samples. Only 26% accessed multimodal treatment including SBSs, medication, and mental health. In multivariate modeling, SBSs displayed a curvilinear relationship with age, which may explain previously conflicting results regarding that relationship. Youth with private insurance or receiving mental health or medication were more likely to receive SBSs. Gender, race/ethnicity, and caregiver education, health, and mental health were not related to SBSs use. These findings may reflect sample characteristics. Further exploration of factors influencing SBSs use in different populations is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Educational Longitudinal Study database was used to examine the educational development of students of low socioeconomic status (SES). A path analysis was conducted to determine the effects of student background, psychological, and behavioral variables on postsecondary educational attainment of low-SES students. The results show that high school math scores were the most powerful predictor of postsecondary educational attainment, followed by effects of academic expectations, locus of control, reading scores, problem behavior, and classroom behavior. Implications for school counselors are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The western edge of the United States is the region Joel Garreau called "Ecotopia" in his 1981 book titled The Nine Nations of North America. He explained his use of the name, "Ecotopia," as coming from a novel by Ernest Callenbach (1975), but originally from the Greek combination of the words "ecology" and "utopia." Garreau selected this as the best descriptor for the western United States; the concept of an "ecological Utopia" serves as the over-arching organizer for this vast and varied region (Garreau, 1981, p. 251). In 1981, Garreau described the region as a dynamic area, closely connected to environmental issues, and amazingly complex in terms of differences among its fast-growing population. The changes that have occurred since 1981 are staggering. This article describes these changes and examines their impact on rural education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educational research has found few benefits of preprimary school nonpromotion; nevertheless, in many countries the practice remains quite common. The aim of this study is to extend knowledge regarding preprimary nonpromotion via investigation of a wide set of child and family characteristics deemed predictive and discriminative of different postkindergarten nonpromotion alternatives in Flanders, Belgium. The study participants were 3,633 children (3,375 were promoted to first grade, 138 repeated kindergarten, 71 transferred to special education, 49 attended a transition room). Child preacademic scores and psychosocial functioning were relatively strong predictors for promotion versus nonpromotion. Child and family demographic characteristics were more decisive regarding the choice between retention, special education, and a transition program. The study raises questions about nonpromotion practices in terms of selectivity mechanisms, prevention, and educational alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In contrast to the phenomenon of minority overrepresentation in special education in developed countries such as the United States, a paradoxical situation occurs in many developing countries, whereby majority populations are underrepresented in the educational system. The author examines some of the prevailing and traditional societal and politicaleconomic factors specific to India that contribute to this underrepresentation, such as a paucity of resources that affects children from low socioeconomic backgrounds, gender differences in child rearing and educational expectations that affect girls, and negative attitudes toward disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Teacher retention, especially of qualified teachers within high-poverty schools, is an issue of local, national, and international concern. School staffing research has typically examined two groups: those who remain in full-time classroom teaching versus those who quit teaching altogether. This article complicates the teacher staffing picture and adds a third category of attrition: role changing, which is the phenomenon of teachers shifting into nonteaching professional roles in the field of education. Purpose: We asked what proportion of teacher career movement within our sample was attributable to leaving teaching versus role changing. Further, we wanted to know the influence of race/ethnicity, gender, credential type, and age on role-changing patterns. Research Design: To deepen our understanding of teacher career patterns, we conducted a 6-year longitudinal study that involved collecting survey data on teacher career movement, school experiences, and attitudes from 838 well-prepared urban educators in their first through eighth career year. These educators had all completed master's degrees in the teacher education program of a high-status urban public university and all began their careers as teachers. After collecting the data, we documented and diagrammed career patterns. In addition, we analyzed the influence of select time invariant covariates on the hazard probabilities of both role changing and leaving education. Findings/Results: The study found that not only did teachers move into a variety of non-teaching roles within the field of education, but they also followed diverse career "pathways" along the way. Survival analysis substantiated prior research showing that Latino teachers have lower attrition rates from the field of education compared with White teachers, but this effect disappeared for role changing with the field. In terms of gender the men in our population were less likely to leave education entirely than women but more likely to leave teaching for a role change in career years 3-8. Teachers with single-subject (secondary) credentials were more likely than their colleagues who held multiple-subject (elementary) credentials to leave teaching for a role change in education. Conclusions/Recommendations: Set within the framework of teacher professionalism, we argue that role changing is a form of sanctioned attrition and that understanding movement among roles within the educational workforce is essential for crafting policies and incentives to keep well-prepared teachers rooted in careers that serve the nation's most underserved students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: This review focuses on the transition to college literature in sociology published since 1983 with an emphasis on revealing the contribution that sociology has made to our understanding of under-represented U.S. populations and their transition into and completion of postsecondary education. Purpose: The review is organized around four main themes: 1) college preparation, 2) college access, 3) financing college, and 4) college completion and/or retention. Five dimensions that cut across these themes are emphasized: 1) disadvantaged or underrepresented students, 2)parents, families, and social networks of these students, 3) institutions, 4)federal, regional, state, local, or other policies, and 5) systemwide or interactive factors. Research Design: This is an analytic essay of prior analyses. These prior analyses include but are not limited to a range of methods, such as qualitative case study and secondary analysis of national, regional, and institutional data. Findings/Results: This review finds that while most sociological research has focused on college preparation, with disadvantaged students at the center of this work, very little research has studied college financing. Conclusions/Recommendations: Sociological studies relevant to the transition to college continue to strive toward that end, but the field still remains underdeveloped with regard to an emphasis on how the wider societal system of stratification and opportunity interact with individuals, social groups, and educational institutions in a dynamic interplay that affects opportunities for quality educational advancement. In some respects, the prominence of the status attainment framework has limited progress in the field of sociology. Although multi-level modeling affords the opportunity to consider not just the individual, but the individual embedded in particular educational contexts and other contexts, the role of institutional and systemwide factors requires further development among sociologists of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: The essay provides a comprehensive review of work by economists and others in related quantitative disciplines on the transition of students to college. A particular emphasis is given to the role of price and financial aid although issues related to college preparation, access, and persistence are also investigated. The final section discusses ongoing debates within economics about college access and success and suggests directions for future research. Purpose: While other papers review parts of this literature, given the breadth and depth of the work on the transition to college, none gives a full picture of the contribution of economics to this area of understanding. Research Design: A main goal of the economics literature has been to establish a causal relationship rather than one based on the correlation of trends or patterns. In pursuit of causality, economists rely on complex estimation techniques usually involving large samples of quantitative data and often utilize "natural experiments" to establish the impact of a factor or policy. Unfortunately, the data requirements for such work, along with the concerns about biases, often limits the kinds of questions that can be confidently answered. The primary framework in economics of education is the human capital model. When deciding whether to continue their education, individuals compare the benefits of human capital to the costs of obtaining it. Numerous articles highlight important factors in these decisions, including both monetary and non-monetary considerations as well as uncertainty and risk aversion. Conclusions/Recommendations: While great progress has been made by economists to understand issues related to college access and success, the article makes suggestions about possible future research. More work is needed to understand the role of primary and secondary schools in college attendance, why there are differences in academic course-taking and performance, and the role of expectations and information in college access. Although economists have greatly contributed to the understanding of the role of costs and benefits in college demand, additional work is needed to clarify the role of parents, teachers, peers, and neighborhoods in college decisions. Additional research is also needed to resolve the current debate about the relative role of resources in comparison to long-term family circumstances and academic preparation. Finally, more information is also need about what factors affect college success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: Although increasing numbers of scholars have begun to focus on student experiences, research on the history of underrepresented populations' transition to college is still in its formative stage. The classic histories of higher education have tended to focus on university infrastructure and intellectual life rather than on student experiences. In addition, historians studying college enrollment generally have not used the policy frameworks of preparation, access, finance, and completion as their central analytical categories. Instead, most historians have organized their work around individual institutions and the categories of race, gender, and class. Purpose: This article explores the question of what historical scholarship might contribute to current campaigns for equal access to higher education. Research Design: This study was a literature review of all historical scholarship on college access produced in the last twenty five years. Literature was identified by searches on ERIC, Academic Search Premier, and JSTOR, and by consulting the references of the most commonly cited works in this field. For purposes of analysis, the review is divided into sections on "Preparation," "Admissions," "Finance," and "Retention." Each section highlights potential implications for contemporary thinking about college access and recommends future areas for historical inquiry. This essay does not claim to be an exhaustive survey of all historical scholarship on college access. Instead, the article focuses on work representing broad themes and major debates in the historiography as well as scholarship which touches most directly on transitions to college. Conclusions/Recommendations: First, evidence from the nineteenth century suggests that even elite liberal arts colleges can take an active role in providing college preparation while still remaining true to other aspects of their academic mission. Secondly, although the increasing interest in "merit" once served to expand access to college by opening admissions to academically skilled but socially or economically marginalized students, it became a hurdle for equal access by the final third of the twentieth century. Since colleges have struggled to articulate a consistent measurement of student merit, it is unclear if it is possible to determine a coherent or constructive college mission based on this concept. Third, while market forces have occasionally motivated institutions to expand access to underrepresented populations, state intervention has generally been necessary to increase access to college. Finally, the most powerful lesson that history can provide may be reminding politicians that experts have typically underestimated the extent of the demand for higher education by both students and employers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the outset of the charter school movement, some opponents feared that charter schools would become havens for White students wishing to flee the traditional public school system, resulting in publicly funded segregation. However, studies suggest that this has not occurred. In fact, charter schools on average remain slightly racially segregated, enrolling more minority students than traditional public schools. Segregation in charter schools is not unavoidable considering that they often can exercise more control of student body composition through recruitment measures. This article examines the current racial makeup of charter schools by reporting student body diversity data in the 32 states that enroll more than 1,000 students in charter schools (as of 2002-2003). Additionally, the impact of parental choice, the lifting of desegregation decrees, and state statutory language on the racial composition of charter schools is discussed. Finally, the authors offer recommendations for combating segregation in charter schools and discuss avenues for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the teacher shortage, some states have developed special associate's degrees in teacher education. This article explores the prevalence and structure of these specialized associate's degrees and presents a case for their development to smooth the transfer pathway for community college students who wish to become teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As minority populations continue to grow. suburban school systems will bear a larger responsibility for educating students of color. Rapid demographic change may mean that students of color could walk into suburban schools ill prepared to address their academic and social needs. The focus of this study was to examine how and why several suburban high schools responded to demographic change in the ways they did. This multisite case study considered the policy and procedural changes that took place as growing numbers of African American students entered these schools. Interviews. documents, and archival data provided information on the programs, policies, and practices that schools modified and/or adopted in response to their growing African American population. This study suggests that racial meanings and interpretations affected issues of faculty efficacy and agency, school identity, and power and politics, which ultimately shaped school actions, beliefs, and decisions in response to demographic change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the effect of U.S. population diversity on parent-teacher collaboration, especially in the educational planning for students with special needs. The author present possible barriers to parent involvement and the positive effects of parent involvement. The progressive plan outlined includes parent in the collaborative relationship from start to finish; helps teacher understand the needs of families from culturally diverse backgrounds, and includes activities designed to strengthen trust in educational professionals and the planning process for individualized education programs. Activity suggestions, important facts to remember, and additional factors for each stage of the plan's implementation are included.

There is an ongoing debate about levels of segregation, their causes, and their long-term direction. The debate is between those who, while acknowledging some role for economic forces place the emphasis for continuing segregation on discrimination and White prejudice and those who place greater emphasis on income, wealth, and residential preferences. This debate is further illuminated with a detailed analysis of African American suburbanization using a combination of data from the 2000 Census and the Current Population Survey. The analysis confirms other research that shows substantial suburban growth of African American populations. It adds to that research by showing that those African American populations who move to the suburbs have substantially more income and wealth and higher levels of education than African American populations who move within the metropolitan cores. In addition, suburban African Americans live in more integrated settings than those who live in the central city. The implications of this finding bolster the view that income does matter in residential choices for African Americans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have attempted to explain the relationship between education and health by incorporating mediators-such as income--through which schooling affects health. Research has also shown that the education-health relationship varies across age and cohort. This article integrates these themes in an investigation of the role income plays in the changing relationship between education and health. Using data from the 1972-2001 National Health Interview Surveys, I find that the direct relationship between education and health is weakening across cohorts, while the indirect effect of education through income is strengthening across cohorts. Cohort change in this indirect effect is equally attributable to change in the relationships between education and income and between income and health. Life course differences in direct and indirect relationships vary in shape, suggesting that a substantive explanation---one that does not rely solely on selective mortality--is warranted. The results suggest that future research should continue to employ a life course framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses Latino population growth in the United States and their participation in higher education, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics programs. The demographic and educational trends outlined here suggest that although the Latino population will continue to grow very rapidly, the participation in higher education by Latino students and faculty will not keep pace. The projected increase of school-age Latinos will increase the pool of students at the K-12 end of the educational pipeline; however, without effective interventions, the higher education end of this pipeline will remain narrow, and only a small number of Latinos with graduate degrees will be produced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early in the 20th century, high rates of international migration from Europe and an increasing number of migrants from the South were rapidly changing the composition of cities in the northern United States. Within this dynamic environment, families faced a more complex set of decisions for the preferred economic roles of their members. For adolescents, families chose between the immediate economic rewards of sending them into the workforce and deferring benefits by extending their educational careers. This article uses the 1920 Public Use Microdata Sample to examine racial and ethnic variation in school enrollment for adolescents aged 14 to 18. It proposes a conceptual model that uses a variety of social, economic, and cultural forces to anticipate differences in schooling between international immigrants and domestic migrants, as well as across generations of both groups. The statistical analyses reveal large racial and ethnic differences in schooling for both boys and girls. The most surprising finding is for second-generation black female migrants from the South, who were significantly more likely than were all other groups of female adolescents to be enrolled in school. The authors speculate that this result is due to a combination of "immigrant optimism" and restricted employment opportunities for second-generation black female migrants in the North. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the relationship between educational attainment and health is well established, there is disagreement about how this relationship changes across the life course. Some studies have shown that educational health disparities widen in middle age and then start to abate in old age, whereas others have shown that health disparities continue to widen in old age. The author used the 1992-2002 Health and Retirement Study to shed new light on this old debate. Because findings of declining health inequalities in old age are often dismissed as a product of mortality selection and cohort effects, this study primarily aimed to address these claims. The author found that cohort effects and mortality selection do not fully explain shrinking educational disparities in functional health in old age. Further work is needed to explore explanations for diminishing health disparities health in old age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the National Center for Education Statistics indicate that Latinos lag behind non-Latinos in education and in other socioeconomic characteristics. Although there are some positive indications such as the decrease of individuals and children living in poverty and an increase in the number of individuals working in the technical, sales, and administrative support sectors, the increases have been small. Current census population estimates indicate that the Latino population will continue its very rapid rate of growth for the foreseeable future. An overview of salient sociodemographic characteristics of the Latino population, including educational attainment, poverty, immigration, family income, family size, family type, and language status is provided. The steady increase of this very youthful population makes it imperative that it receive an education that will provide it with the skills to make it a productive citizenry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preventing school dropout and promoting successful graduation is a national concern that poses a significant challenge for schools and educational communities working with youth at risk for school failure. Although students who are at greatest risk for dropping out of school can be identified, they disengage from school and drop out for a variety of reasons for which there is no one common solution. The most effective intervention programs identify and track youth at risk for school failure, maintain a focus on students' progress toward educational standards across the school years, and are designed to address indicators of student engagement and to impact enrollment status—not just the predictors of dropout. To leave no child behind, educators must address issues related to student mobility, alternate routes to school completion, and alternate time lines for school completion, as well as engage in rigorous evaluation of school-completion programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides direct evidence about educational attainments of new arrivals in Canada over the period 1956 to 1994. This evidence is based on immigrants' educational attainment data obtained from two sources: different population censuses from 1961 to 1986, including those from 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1986; and landing documents of immigrants. Data from these two sources allow an analysis of educational attainment trends over a longer period than that conducted in some other studies and in more depth. Finally immigrant data are also compared with the educational attainment of the Canadian-born population in corresponding periods. Individuals aged 25 years or older are considered. Results show that, in the total immigrant inflows of any subperiod since 1956, the percentages of those with high school education or less have been declining and have been lower that those for the Canadian-born population. These results contradict the generally held view in Canada that in the post-1967 period, the immigration policy's increased focus on family and refugee classes has resulted in the admission of immigrants who are less educated than those who arrived before 1967. This result indicates that other factors such as discrimination and general economic conditions in the country should be investigated in depth to explain the recently cited decline in the economic performance of Canadian immigrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

London and Hadden (1989) used Thai province-level data to test aspects of Caldwell's "wealth-flows" theory of the decline in fertility, specifically the hypothesis that the spread of education produces declines in fertility. They found strong support for the hypothesis, but could only speculate regarding the degree to which this finding could be generalized beyond the Thai case. This study reports the results of a cross-national analysis (N = 51-59) that assessed the generality of "the spread of education effect." Although only modest additional support was found for Caldwell's "spread" hypothesis, strong support was found for Caldwell's (1982, p. 305) assertion that "demographic change is unlikely if the movement towards mass schooling is confined largely to males." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

District-level studies of "White flight" have pointed to an acceleration of the decline in White enrollments while schools are being desegregated. The authors extend this work by exploring whether particular schools in nine desegregating districts were disproportionate contributors to these declines, using data for the 1968-84 period. The results suggest that several district-level and school-specific characteristics are associated with changes in White school enrollments, but provide little support for the idea that desegregation prompts resegregation. Furthermore, the inability to detect a temporal pattern in changes in enrollments indicates that school-enrollment patterns after desegregation resembled those before desegregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]