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The present work serves as a theoretical commentary over the Himalayan Re-gridded and Observational EXperiment (HiROX) and distributes the conceived framework grown under the two-phase experiment. HiROX is a scientific effort aimed at revising the existing precipitation knowledge over the Central Himalayas over the state of Uttarakhand, including the Upper Ganga Basin. The first phase of the study is experimenting with machine learning methods aimed at developing re-gridded precipitation datasets capable of incorporating selective precipitation features and distributing the developed machine learning framework to the research community. The model is designed for easy reproduction of re-gridded precipitation data and the ability to adapt to the available precipitation datasets subject to missing and/or modified inputs. The model is capable of ingesting gridded precipitation datasets at varying spatial resolutions, along with point data values, and can return gridded precipitation information at a spatial resolution of 5 × 5 km2. The second objective of the companion paper under HiROX is the realization of the features of the developed model and exercising it in the development of two high-resolution precipitation datasets at daily timesteps, namely HiROX-1 (~50 yrs) and HiROX-2 (~20 yrs). The present paper limits the discourse to robust development, and the produced datasets are discussed and distributed in the joint paper – Himalayan Re-gridded and Observational Experiment (HiROX): Part II – Application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity reserves are a crucial in-situ method to conserve biodiversity hotspots as they are sensitive to climate change. The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) in the western Himalayas is enriched with diverse endemic flora and fauna and endorses the second-highest mountain peak in the world. However, in the recent decade, this region has potentially warmed at an alarming rate. With 36 temperature and precipitation indices from high-resolution 40-year data from ERA5 reanalysis and CHIRPS, this paper assesses the state of warming and extreme climatic events. Apart from the indices, Landsat (NASA/USGS, USA) and QuickSCAT (ISRO, India) were utilized to assess the region's response to climate change. An increase of 0.73ºC in the last decade for minimum, 0.26°C for maximum temperatures was observed, with the highest anomaly of 1.7°C in 2016. The reserve's vegetation pattern has changed with the vegetative region's dispersal towards the north and higher elevations. In the year 2000, the area without any vegetation covered 79% of the total area, which declined to a mere 23.8% in the year 2020, equivalent to a 70% decline in the area. Similarly, the area with very dense region covered only 0.02% of the total area in the year 2000, and in the year 2020, it increased to 109%. Snow cover seems to be worst affected in the region with dense snow cover declining maximum by 2020. From coverage of 12.3% of the total area of the reserves, it was reduced to a mere 0.02%, showing a decline of nearly 100% in the region. Our findings show that although protected areas are meant to be resilient to external anthropogenic intrusions, they are highly susceptible to the intrinsic forces of induced climate change. We suggest that reserve managers enable robust measures to identify the distribution of vulnerable species and introduce new methods to preserve the pristine hotspot region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantification of uranium levels was done in the water samples collected from different groundwater sources in the Shivalik hills of outer Himalaya using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The uranium concentration in analyzed samples varying from BDL to 16.137 µg L−1 is observed below 30 µg L−1 advocated by World Health Organization. The estimation of human health risks in terms of hazard quotients and dose quantities is presented in the paper. An effort has also been made to evaluate the retention of uranium levels in human body organs using ICRP's biokinetic model. No significant health hazards were observed due to uranium consumption through potable water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Paleogene is a crucial period when terrestrial and marine ecosystems recovered from major disruptions and gradually approached their modern states. In the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding regions, the Paleogene also represents a significant phase of tectonic evolution in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau-Himalaya orogeny, reorganization of Asian climates, and evolution of biodiversity. Due to limitations in research conditions and understanding, there are still many controversies regarding stratigraphic divisions in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding regions In recent years, extensive studies on sedimentary petrology, magnetostratigraphy, and isotope dating have been conducted in the region. Numerous fossils have been discovered and reported, contributing to a more systematic understanding of biostratigraphy. These studies have laid a solid foundation for the comprehensive investigation of the stratigraphy, biotas and paleogeographic evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding regions during the Paleogene. In this paper, we integrate recent research on fossils, isotopic dating, magnetostratigraphy, and geochemistry to refine the stratigraphic divisions and correlation framework of different tectonic units in the region, building upon previous studies. Since the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research, the knowledge of Paleogene floras has gradually expanded. This paper discusses the biostratigraphic significance of extinct and newly appeared taxa based on the latest dating results of these plant species. The new understanding of fossil species such as the "Eucalyptus" and Arecaceae establishes connections between the Paleogene flora of the Qinghai-Tibetan region and the biotas of Gondwana, specifically Oceania and South America. The evolutionary history of key taxa near the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone indicates that the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates occurred approximately 65–54 Ma. Paleoelevation reconstructions, based on plant fossils, suggest that the Hengduan Mountain had already formed their current topographic pattern prior to the Early Oligocene. The warm and humid lowlands adjacent to the main suture zones in the Paleogene Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau served as the primary pathway for biota exchanges. The relatively low elevation of the Himalaya during the Paleogene did not effectively block the moisture from the Indian Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper releases two regional precipitation products produced in the Himalayan Re-gridded and Observational Experiment (HiROX) conducted over the Central (Uttarakhand) Himalayas including the Upper Ganga Basin. The distributed precipitation products cover a period of about 70 yrs: HiROX-1 ranges from 1972 to 2018 (47 yrs) and is a regridded static daily precipitation product, and HiROX-2 ranges from 2000 to 2021 (22 yrs) and is a regridded dynamic daily precipitation product with continuous upgradation capacity. These datasets are capable of (a) precisely capturing and reproducing refined spatial distribution of precipitation and (b) preserving data accuracy along with other spatiotemporal characteristics over the study region, better than that observed in popular precipitation products covering the study region. The comparative investigation established HiROX-1 as better than some or all the tested datasets in terms of (a) spatial resolution, (b) accuracy, (c) temporal resolution, (d) temporal coverage, and (e) spatial distribution, and presents their application suitability. The second precipitation product, HiROX-2, closely followed HiROX-1, as reported in the ensuing investigation. We employed an open-source precipitation model, HiROX-M1, a flexible machine learning framework capable of processing precipitation information at fine spatial resolution. These regional precipitation products are provided at a spatial resolution of 5 × 5 km2 on daily scale over projected and geographic coordinate systems. HiROX-1 is a station-dependent product and HiROX-2 is a near real-time station-independent product with an updated frequency equal to that of Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) Final Precipitation L3 1 day 0.1° × 0.1° V06 (GPM_3IMERGDF V06) product. The released products are platform-independent in choice of operating system and geographic information system (GIS) interface. The released data shall assist in closing the spatial discontinuity of ground station information over the Central Himalayan region over Uttarakhand, including the Upper Ganga Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work presented in paper is focussed on the development of an accurate time-frequency representation of accelerograms, representing the seismic activity of the Himalayalan regions. The Himalayas have a long history of high levels of seismicity due to the movement of tectonic plates in the region. The effectiveness of the advanced time-frequency analysis (TFA) method known as Wavelet Synchro-Squeezed Transforms (WSST) has been exploited for processing accelerograms of the regions. Obtaining simultaneous time and frequency localizations with high levels of resolution is always challenging for non-stationary signals such as accelerograms. To have better time and frequency localization, the first part of the paper proposes an advanced TFA technique using WSST. The second part of work is then focused on devising a technique for accurate synthesis of the accelerograms to represent the actual and limited seismic records. A WSST based denoising is further proposed to remove the unwanted noise from the signals. Using the available actual recorded data from the region, respective synthetic accelerograms and response spectra have been developed for different magnitude and distance ranges using the WSST technique. The synthetic signals are then authenticated with the actual signal data using different Joint-TFA (JTFA) approaches. The effectiveness of the proposed WSST based synthesis method is further confirmed by higher structural similarity metric (SSIM) scores when compared with the time-frequency representations of the reference ground truth accelerograms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, the Himalayas have seen increasing extreme precipitation events. Climate change has impacted the occurrence and distribution of extreme precipitation events across the Himalayas. Patterns of both western disturbances and the Indian summer monsoon are undergoing significant changes in nature due to climate change. However, the magnitude and intensity of flood in a stream are not always linearly dependent on the amount of precipitation. Other factors, such as topography, land use, soil characteristics, and antecedent hydrological conditions, play a pivotal role in modulating the response of a watershed to an extreme precipitation event. On July 07–11, 2023, several districts of Himachal Pradesh faced devastating floods resulting in loss of life, infrastructure, and environmental damage with significant economic consequences. Developing a resilient solution for managing such events and reducing damage requires an in-depth understanding of multiple causative factors of such extreme events. In this paper, we analyzed the meteorological and hydrological factors that caused the flooding situation in Himachal Pradesh during July 2023. Hydrometeorological data from several observation stations were analyzed along with reanalysis data from ERA5, SMAP-L4, and FLDAS-NOAH to understand the causative factors that lead to peak floods. The compounding of extremely heavy rainfall with near-saturation antecedent moisture content and snowmelt was found to be the leading factor in inflating and sustaining the flood peak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the rising levels of atmospheric particulate matter (PM) have an impact on the earth's system, leading to undesirable consequences on various aspects like human health, visibility, and climate. The present work is carried out over an insufficiently studied but polluted urban area of Peshawar, which lies at the foothills of the famous Himalaya and Karakorum area, Northern Pakistan. The particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 µm, i.e., PM10 are collected and analyzed for mineralogical, morphological, and chemical properties. Diverse techniques were used to examine the PM10 samples, for instance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy along with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, proton-induced x-ray emission, and an OC/EC carbon analyzer. The 24 h average PM10 mass concentration along with standard deviation was investigated to be 586.83 ± 217.70 µg/m3, which was around 13 times greater than the permissible limit of the world health organization (45 µg/m3) and 4 times the Pakistan national environmental quality standards for ambient PM10 (150 µg/m3). Minerals such as crystalline silicate, carbonate, asbestiform minerals, sulfate, and clay minerals were found using FTIR and XRD investigations. Microscopic examination revealed particles of various shapes, including angular, flaky, rod-like, crystalline, irregular, rounded, porous, chain, spherical, and agglomeration structures. This proved that the particles had geogenic, anthropogenic, and biological origins. The average value of organic carbon, elemental carbon, and total carbon is found to be 91.56 ± 43.17, 6.72 ± 1.99, and 102.41 ± 44.90 µg/m3, respectively. Water-soluble ions K+ and OC show a substantial association (R = 0.71). Prominent sources identified using Principle component analysis (PCA) are anthropogenic, crustal, industrial, and electronic combustion. This research paper identified the potential sources of PM10, which are vital for preparing an air quality management plan in the urban environment of Peshawar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the results of the geochemical study of the Jutogh metasedimentary rocks that occur as a tectonic window between the Lesser and the Higher Himalaya. The Jutogh Group of rocks are mostly mica-schists of different metamorphic grade. The weathering intensity parameters, such as chemical index of alteration (CIA), plagioclase index of alteration (PIA), and index of compositional variability (ICV), range from 81 to 65 (mean = 72), 97 to 68 (mean = 84), and 1.9 to 0.6 (mean = 1.2), respectively indicating low to moderate degrees of weathering. Transition element ratios [Ni/Co (6.98 to 2.88), and V/Ni (2.32 to 1.27)], and major and trace element geochemistry imply recycled, felsic to intermediate, Archean to post-Archean are the sources for Jutogh rocks. The tectonic discrimination diagram implies an active continental margin setting for the deposition of the Jutogh metasediments. The geochemical data from the Jutogh rocks, when combined with the S-type Paleoproterozoic granite magmatism, imply the existence of an active tectonic setting during the deposition of the Jutogh sediments at the northern margin of the Indian continent during Nuna assembly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

GNSS measurement-based geodetic studies have led to researchers explaining the regional deformation in the Himalaya in terms of arc-parallel shearing and arc-normal compression. Arc-parallel extension is caused by an increase in the shearing rate, which is reflected in the increasing arc-parallel velocities as one moves along-arc away from the arc-center. This has prompted many to recognize the significance of arc-parallel shearing and extension in the Himalayan orogeny. Several researchers have proposed that the arc-parallel deformation is taken up almost entirely by the Karakoram fault system through slip transfer from the Himalayan foothills, though recent studies have provided some evidence of dextral faulting within the Northwest (NW) Himalayan accretionary wedge. In this paper we address this issue by providing topography-derived evidence such as the deviation of the maximum gradient azimuth from the arc-normal along the Himalayan arc to show that obliquity in convergence is a significant controlling factor in shaping the morphology of the Himalayan slopes. Approximately 4 ± 3 mm/year of arc-parallel dextral shear is being accommodated within the accretionary wedge spanning the NW Himalaya (particularly the part in Himachal and Garhwal), which is approximately 55% of the total arc-parallel dextral shear resulting from the ongoing convergence between southern Tibet and the Indian Plate in this portion of the Himalaya. The study further suggests consistency of the observed Himalayan deformation with the oblique convergence model and the significant role that the underthrusting ridges inherited from the Indian Plate are playing in the strain accommodation pattern in the overlying Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we analyzed two decadal long term (2003–2022) data of AOD and cloud parameters to understand the spatial and temporal variations in aerosol radiative characteristics over a highly polluted urbanized region of Northern India. The aerosol and cloud data were derived at spectral wavelength of 550 nm from the MODIS based Terra/Aqua satellites. Detailed AOD quantitative analysis considering monthly, seasonal and interannual changes was investigated in relation to cloud characteristics and zonal synoptic climatic disturbances. HYSPLIT back trajectory 5-day analysis was made to know the pathways of air masses ending at Delhi region of India. Moreover, we applied Student's t-test to mean Terra AOD and cloud properties to examine and further validate the relationship of aerosol-cloud interaction over the urban tropical Delhi zone close to Himalaya range of Northern India. Results indicated that AODs were found to be increased significantly (> 68%) during the 20 years period of 2003–2022, which might be accounted to continuously increased aerosol pollution in atmosphere. On an annual basis, mean Terra AOD exhibited an increasing trend of ~ 0.0009 per year, whereas seasonal mean AOD was observed to be maximum for winter (~ 0.96) and minimum for summer (~ 0.55), respectively. The correlation coefficient was highest (+ 0.73) between AOD and precipitable water vapor, whereas lowest (− 0.46) between AOD and cloud top pressure (CTP). The findings of AOD and cloud parameters have been compared with the earlier findings made on different Indian cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last few decades, Jammu and Kashmir has faced many moderate to large earthquake events that caused catastrophic damage to the physical infrastructure and significant socioeconomic loss. The growing number of infrastructure projects, as well as previous historical records of severe earthquakes in this area demand the study of the seismic vulnerability of tunnel. In this paper, an attempt has been made to develop the seismic fragility curves for circular tunnels located in four distinct zones classified based on seismic microzonation results of the Jammu Region (JR). The damage probabilities of shallow tunnels in these zones decrease fiercely as lining thickness increases. Furthermore, increasing PGA by 0.2 g increases the exceedance probabilities for minor, moderate, and extensive damage exposed to 82%, 89%, and 93%, respectively for shallow tunnels. The fragility functions proposed for Jammu and Kashmir were employed to assess seismic risk for tunnels under Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) project. Most of the tunnels in Phase 3 showed more than 50% of damage probability for the region specific defined seismic environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitigation of geological hazards through science and engineering applications is one of the most effective ways to reduce their impact on human life and local infrastructure. It involves precise mapping of hazards, assessment of their potential, monitoring, early warning, geotechnical treatment, design of vital infrastructural facilities and creating awareness at local levels. Several such initiatives have been taken at government level to deal with the earthquakes and landslides in the eastern Himalayan region. These efforts facilitated identification of potential areas and sites, susceptible to future events and helped in improving our understanding of crustal structure, geodynamics, tectonics, seismogenesis, and soil properties, etc. The paper highlights details of the major initiatives, significant achievements, and priorities to help in better mitigation of earthquake and landslide hazards in the eastern Himalayan region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a study of a newly discovered pollucite-lepidolite-albite granite (PLAG) in the Himalayan leucogranite belt, which marks the first occurrence of pollucite, a major cesium silicate mineral, in the Himalayan orogenic belt (China). The rock appears at the northern part of the Gyirong pluton, coexisting with the tourmaline-bearing two-mica granite (TMG). Primary rare-metal minerals include lepidolite (Li), spodumene (Li), pollucite (Cs), cassiterite (Sn), and microlite (Ta). Micas, mainly lithian muscovite to lepidolite, contain 4.07 wt.% Li2O and 0.76 wt.% Rb2O on average. The average Li2O content of the spodumene is 7.95 wt.%. Pollucite not only has an average Cs2O content of 34 wt.%, but also has an elevated Rb2O content of about 0.16 wt.%. Notably, this granite attains industrial grades for rare metals, specifically with Li2O, Rb2O, and Cs2O contents of 0.49–1.19 wt.%, 0.12–0.24 wt.%, and 0.69–2.33 wt.%, respectively. Dating results of magmatic accessory cassiterite and monazite indicated that the PLAG was formed at 19–18 Ma, slightly later than the TMG (22–20 Ma) of the Gyirong pluton. Thus, these two types of granites may form within the same magmatic system considering their pulsating intrusive contact, formation ages, and whole-rock and mineral chemical compositions. Furthermore, the abundant presence of pollucite suggests that the PLAG experienced high degrees of magmatic fractionation. In comparison to the Pusila spodumene pegmatite in the Himalaya and the Yashan topaz-lepidolite granite in Jiangxi, South China, the Gyirong PLAG exhibits different whole-rock and mineral compositions, resulting from differences in source materials and fractionation processes. Notably, the difference in fluorine (F) content may determine the degree of rare-metal element enrichment. The discovery of Gyirong PLAG highlights multiple stages and types of rare-metal mineralization in the Himalayan leucogranite belt, which is controlled by the South Tibetan Detachment System. The Cs-bearing geyserite deposit exposed along the Yarlung-Zangbo River, together with Himalayan leucogranites, constitutes two systems of rare-metal elements migration and enrichment. These two systems reflect the interaction among Earth systems across time and space, emphasizing how the Himalayan orogeny controls mineralization. As a result, the Himalayan leucogranite belt has considerable prospecting potential for cesium and rubidium resources and may be a crucial area for future exploration and resource utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Yarlung Zangbo River valley in north Himalaya, many high-frequency debris flows develop, with large amounts of run-out debris materials. To reduce the hazard scale of the debris flow, check dams are frequently used to mitigate and prevent debris flow movement, and many check dams are damaged under the impact of debris flows. This paper proposed a novel integrated three-dimensional numerical approach to quantitatively assess the dynamic process of a debris flow and its interaction with a check dam considering check dam damage. The numerical approach is based on the SPH-FDEM method, which uses the SPH of Bingham fluid to simulate debris flows while using the FDEM to simulate structural check dams composed of rock blocks. A test of granular flow impact measurement in an inclined flume was used to validate the rheological characteristics of the debris flow and its interaction with the structure. The debris flow in the G62 gully, which is near NR 318 and has the potential to destroy the road, is used as a case for numerical simulation. Several different engineering conditions, including without a check dam, with an undamaged check dam and with a damaged check dam, were considered. The simulation results show that the debris flow scale without considering the check dam is consistent with the field investigation. The run-out speed, viscous dissipation energy, and frictional energy of the debris flow with time can be quantitatively acquired. When a check dam is considered, the processes of the dam undergoing debris impact, fracture generation and evolution, the separation of broken blocks from the main check dam body, and the transport of these blocks by the debris flow can be clearly observed. The stress, damage area, damage extent, damage mode, fracture energy, and fracture area of the check dam can be quantitatively acquired from the model, which greatly expands the applicability of debris flow numerical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 7th February 2021, a catastrophic flash flood occurred in Raunthi Gad, Rishi Ganga catchment of Dhualiganga Basin. It caused the death of around 200 people and devastated the hydropower projects and other associated infrastructure in the downstream areas of the basin. While the extent of damage and devastation in the downstream region around Rini and Tapovan has been extensively reported, the reconstruction of the event has still not been definitively established. Based on an analysis of the data reported in previous papers and our field and remote-sensing data, we present a detailed reconstruction of the events that occurred in Raunthi Gad that morning. Our analysis supports previous reports that the basic cause was that a portion of the hanging glacier located at Raunthi peak (5600 m asl) along with a large amount of rock fell and hit the Raunthi valley at about 1.5 km downstream of the current snout of Raunthi glacier at an elevation of around 3800 m asl. We present evidence, supported by previous data of transient ponding in the region between the impact zone and the confluence of Raunthi Gad and Rishi Ganga. We estimate the flood volume at Rini to be around 10 MCM and the volume of water available in the valley in the form of ice and snow to be around 6 MCM. We argue that this deficit can be accounted for by the debris volume. The material gained around 8 × 1014 J of energy during the initial slide whereas around 1.5 × 1014 J is required to melt the ice and snow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By 2040, India hopes to have completed its energy supply to fulfill the country's rising energy demands. Renewable and conventional sources must be used in an environmentally acceptable manner to achieve sustainable growth. India must enhance its use of renewable and clean energy sources, including geothermal, wind, and solar, to satisfy its growing demand. While solar and wind energy output has increased significantly, geothermal energy has yet to be fully harnessed. Among the many forms of geothermal energy found on the surface are volcanoes, fumaroles, erupting geysers, steaming fields, and hot springs. A total of about 340 geothermal springs may be found in India, spread throughout both orogenic (in the Himalayas) and non-orogenic (in the Peninsula). There were 31 places extensively evaluated, and deep drilling was performed in sixteen of them. Average temperatures range from 35.0°C to the boiling point of water in these springs. Medium (100.0–200.0°C) and low (100°C) enthalpy geothermal energy resources/systems are found in India, with the latter being the most abundant. The essential component of a geothermal system is understanding the heat source and harnessing it. Studies so far have indicated that some geothermal areas have sufficient geothermal potential for direct heat usage and power generation. If the Puga (J&K) field is explored to a depth of at least 500 m, reservoir simulation studies have shown that it might produce more than 3 MW of power. India's diverse geothermal sites and the current status of exploration for future research are discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest cover in Hindu Kush-Himalayas (HKH) Mountains has gone through a decline during the recent few decades. Amongst several other factors, road networks and their expansion has played a major role in forest cover degradation. This paper attempts to explore the association between forest cover change and the extension of the road network in a remote mountainous valley of Kohistan located in the HKH Mountains of northern Pakistan. For this purpose, Remote Sensing techniques and trajectory methods were used to detect the change in forest cover. The impact of road networks and their expansion on forest cover was determined using buffer analysis technique. It was found that forest cover of the study area has declined by 17,076 hectares (12.2%) from 1980 to 2017. It was further concluded that forest cover change was much higher near road networks in 1–3 km buffer than elsewhere in the study area. The results of the study will be useful for forestry and landscape planning and can be used by forest departments locally, provincially and nationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The temperature in the mountains has been increasing at an unprecedented rate in the global warming era. As a result, it is necessary to evaluate suitable models that could provide precise maximum temperature estimates. This paper explores the goodness-of-fit of the two-parameter bell-shaped, light-tailed, and heavy-tailed distribution functions for modeling the annual maximum temperature in the Northwest Himalayan region of India. The distributions under consideration are Gamma, Gumbel, Lognormal, Normal, and Weibull. Method of maximum likelihood estimation is used for parameter estimation along with Akaike information criteria for model selection. Gridded data from Climate Research Unit, UK, was obtained at the 525 grids of the region. This study shows that Normal distribution gives the best fit followed by Lognormal and Gamma distributions, and these three models jointly fit all the grids in the region. Furthermore, we estimate the 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 years return level of annual maximum temperature starting from 2017. The future projections reveal that, on average, the region will face 1.28 (1.25 - 1.32) ∘ C , 1.64 (1.60 - 1.67) ∘ C , 1.93 (1.89 - 1.97) ∘ C , 2.26 (2.22 - 2.31) ∘ C , 2.49 (2.44 - 2.54) ∘ C , and 2.94 (2.88 - 3) ∘ C temperature rise by the years 2022, 2027, 2037, 2067, 2117, and 2517, respectively. In comparison to the middle of the region, the higher and lower belts of the region will be severely impacted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the computation of seismic responses of complex ridge topography is documented that can provide a reliable scenario of ridge amplification. This research work is inspired by the topography of the great Himalaya, wherein the increase of height from the south to north is in form of ups (anticlines) and downs (synclines). The viscoelastic SH- and SV-wave responses of triangular and elliptical complex ridge topography models are simulated using fourth-order finite-difference method. The complexity in the model is augmented by adding more number of sub-ridges and sub-valleys along the flanks of the reference mega-ridge. An increase in ridge amplification is obtained with an increase of complexity in both the triangular and elliptical ridge models for both the polarization of S-wave. The increase of amplification with complexity is drastically very high for the horizontal components of the SV-wave in the case of triangular ridges. It is concluded that the horizontal ground motion simulated at the crest of ridge very much depends on the shape and complexity of the topography as well as the polarization of the incident S-wave. It is concluded that the computed topography effects using the spectral ratio of earthquake records at the top and near its base generally overpredicts spectral amplifications and may not be reliable. Research highlights: In this paper, the increase of S-wave amplification at the crest of sub-ridges as well as the base of subvalleys with an increase of complexity in the topography models is observed. The increase of amplification of the horizontal components of the SV-wave with complexity was larger to that of the SH-wave in the case of triangular sub-ridges. The predicted ridge amplification using earthquake records at the top and base of a ridge generally over-predicts the ridge amplification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation needs in high mountain communities are increasingly well documented, yet most efforts to address these needs continue to befall mountain people who have contributed little to the problem of climate change. This situation represents a contravention of accepted norms of climate justice and calls attention to the need for better understanding of prospects for externally resourced adaptation initiatives in high mountain areas. In response, this paper examines the architecture of formal adaptation support mechanisms organized through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and how such mechanisms might help to meet adaptation needs in high mountain communities. It outlines key global adaptation initiatives organized through the UNFCCC, clarifies idealized linkages between these global adaptation initiatives and meeting local adaptation needs, and evaluates actual progress in connecting such support with discrete adaptation needs in the upper Manaslu region of Nepal. The paper then critically examines observed shortcomings in matching adaptation support organized through the UNFCCC with local adaptation needs, including complications stemming from the bureaucratic nature of formal adaptation support mechanisms, the intervening role of the state in delivering aid, and the ways in which these complexities intersect with the specific socio-cultural contexts of mountain communities. It concludes by highlighting several prospects for increasing the quantity and quality of adaptation support to mountain communities. These opportunities are considered alongside several salient concerns about formal adaptation support mechanisms in an effort to provide a well-rounded assessment of the prospects for planned adaptations in high mountain communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With a boom in the tourist industry both in India and adjoining Nepal, middle-class tourists from the Indian subcontinent have started routinely flying over the Himalayan terrain over the last decade. This influx of tourists stretches its aviation sector, in a country with some of the most vulnerable airports. The Himalayan terrain plays a key role in shaping weather systems over the region which has witnessed several aircraft crashes. Tourists in Nepal routinely fly 19-seater aircrafts such as the Beechcraft 1900D for a joy ride over the Himalayan range and are particularly vulnerable. This paper assesses the risks and vulnerabilities associated with such short duration flights starting from Kathmandu and covering parts of the Himalayan region. The region experiences deep cumulonimbus clouds which form over a period of a few days and are ubiquitous during the monsoon season (June to September). The vertical extent of such clouds ranges from 2 km upwards to up to the tropopause. This paper first assesses cumulonimbus mediated hazards along flight routes with thunderstorm activity and then details a critique on the hazard tied down to secondary effects i.e. deposition of supercooled droplets on a Beechcraft 1900D. In particular, the paper explores the role of cumulonimbus induced icing on the aircraft surfaces which can severely affect tourist flights over this part of the developing world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture communities in the Himalayas are disproportionately vulnerable due to the emerging challenges from climatic and non-climatic stressors. In this study, we systematically review peer-reviewed literature focused on vulnerability assessment of agriculture communities (n = 26) in the five Himalayan countries (Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan). We examine the yearly distribution, geographical scale, methodological approach, stress in consideration, indicators used, and assessment communication methods of the reviewed papers. Our findings indicate that vulnerability assessment of agriculture communities in the Himalayas is a recent practice, as all of the reviewed articles were published after 2007. About 62% of the assessments were conducted at local (household, community, and village) level, and few assessments at sub-national (19%) and basin (12%) levels. Indicator-based methods using primary quantitative data were most common (54%). Further, 90% of the studies addressed vulnerability to a single stressor with 50% of papers dealing with the vulnerability of agriculture communities to climate change and/or climate variability. From the analysis of the literature, it was found that multi-level, multi-stress, and comprehensive socio-ecological assessments were seldom attempted. Mostly the studies were done in isolated pockets and failed to identify the patterns of vulnerability. We advocate that to holistically understand the vulnerability-creating and differentiating mechanisms in agriculture communities, vulnerability assessment should adopt a multi-level approach by integrating both social and ecological determinants, firstly to identify the hotspots of vulnerability and then to deeply understand the root causes in the identified hotspots through integrated analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research paper is devoted to measure the activity contents of natural radionuclide, like, radium (226Ra), thorium (232Th) and potassium (40K) in the soil gathered along the Jwalamukhi thrust of Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalayas, India. NaI(Tl) Scintillator detector was utilized for the estimation of activity content. The activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K for some of the soil samples have been observed to be above the global normal mean values. The outcomes acquired for indoor and outdoor effective dosage are well below the normal international and national proposed results. The determined values of external hazard (Hex) for studied locations are less than unity, therefore; samples assembled from these regions are safe from a health hazard point of view and can be utilized as a construction purposes without producing any radio-logical hazard to human beings. The average estimations of radium equivalent activity were found to be within the limits suggested by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Radon (222Rn) and thoron (220Rn) exhalation rates have also been calculated and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes the recent devastating landslide of Kotrupi, Himachal Pradesh in India which had claimed many human lives and properties along its course on 13 August 2017. This event was the third reactivation of the slide as per data available. The study for this landslide involves a preliminary investigation of the site and comparison of pre- and post-event slope stability analysis. Other than rainfall, the combined effect of differential weathering rate of the debris and soil layers, low material strength, and the presence of a fault zone was found to be the primary cause of instability. The analysis was carried out with the geotechnical investigation and numerical modeling with the help of finite element model-based Phase 2 simulator. The significant findings of this paper include numerical simulation of pre- and post-event slide as stated under unsaturated and saturated condition. The study finds a low factor of safety of the present slope. The unstable condition of the slope may trigger another event of the same intensity shortly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geometry and deformation of the Indian continental mantle lithosphere (ICML) beneath the India-Eurasia collision zone are critical to understanding the accommodation of continent-continent convergence. In this paper, the distribution of residual gravity anomalies in the upper mantle of southern Tibet is estimated using the gravity data and seismic velocity models, and the heterogeneous density distribution of the upper-mantle is then recovered through three-dimensional gravity inversion. The results reveal a low-density anomaly (~300 km W-E and ~100 km N-S) in the upper mantle under the eastern Himalaya, while there is no obvious density anomaly under the western Himalaya. The western boundary of the low-density anomaly coincides with the Yadong-Gulu Rift (YGR) on the surface (89°-90°E), and its southern boundary is located at ~28°N, approximately 130 km southward from the Indus-Yarlung suture, probably representing the mantle suture at depth. This observation indicates that, in contrast to the western ICML which is probably underthrusting at a shallow angle, the eastern ICML be likely subducting steeply, accompanying asthenosphere upwelling. Such a laterally varying geometry suggests that a major tearing of the ICML may have taken place from the intersection of the mantle suture and the YGR in the upper mantle. The tearing and the steep subduction of the ICML might be associated with the magmatic and mineralization events in the eastern Himalaya-Gangdese and the formation of the YGR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall and earthquakes are the most frequent landslide-triggering parameters throughout the Indian Himalayan region. This region is susceptible to both rainfall- and earthquake-induced landslides. Therefore, landslide susceptibility zonation (LSZ) based on the individual triggering parameter is insufficient for this region. The primary aim of this work is to assess the combined effect of rainfall- and earthquake-triggering parameters on LSZ using a GIS-based relative frequency ratio (RFR) approach. Consequently, the objective is to develop rainfall- and earthquake-induced LSZ maps for the study area. In this paper, the study area considered is a part of Chamoli district in the Uttarakhand state of India. For this study, the landslide inventories were derived from the pre- and post-Chamoli earthquake (1999). Landslide inventory includes 220 landslides that occurred before the Chamoli earthquake, considered as rainfall-induced landslides (RIL) and 56 earthquake-induced landslides (EIL). The variation between landslides' spatial distribution and controlling parameters for both cases, i.e. RIL and EIL, are assessed and compared. Then, rainfall- and earthquake-induced LSZ maps in the same study area are produced and compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trees are important as a source of fuelwood and fodder for rural populations in the Himalayas. This paper analysed the fuelwood and fodder consumption patterns of rural households in 16 villages in Alaknanda Valley, Uttarakhand, northern India. The results showed that consumption of biomass from agroforestry and other sources varied significantly in different seasons. The fuelwood consumption requirement from agroforestry was an estimated 2.05, 0.63 and 1.24 kg/capita/day in winter, summer and rainy season, respectively, while the corresponding values for fuelwood from other sources were 1.16, 0.34 and 0.65 kg/capita/day, respectively. The fodder from agroforestry also contributed an estimated value of 12.96, 10.35 and 7.65 kg/adult cattle unit/day in winter, summer and the rainy season, respectively, while other sources contributed 3.53, 4.76 and 11.58 kg/ACU/day, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of agroforestry comprising suitable tree species for fuelwood and fodder in mountainous regions. Agroforestry can be a potential strategy to enhance resilience to climate change among smallholders who are fully dependent on natural resources, by reducing the risk of total crop yield losses, providing a more stable source of fuelwood and fodder, and reducing the time and energy spent on collecting resources from outside the smallholding or farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalayan mountains are one of the most seismo-tectonically active zones on the surface of the earth. Recurring moderate and high magnitude earthquakes are not uncommon in this region. This paper maps the earthquake vulnerability in the region using integrated multi-criteria decision models. Factors which may influence vulnerability in a region can be categorized in social, geotechnical, structural, and physical parameters. We have used the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) approach to determine the weights of various parameters, which were further used to develop earthquake vulnerability maps for the study area using the VIseKriterijumska Optimizacija I Kompromisno Resenje (VIKOR), and Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) methods. There is good correlation between the vulnerability estimated through AHP-VIKOR and AHP-GRA methods. Our analysis indicates that more than 12% area may be under high to very-high vulnerability, whereas more than 44% population, and about 43% buildings are highly vulnerable to hazards due to earthquakes. The results would be useful for various hazard mitigation and infrastructure planning agencies working in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacial lake is an important water resource. But glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are destructive not only to property and infrastructure but also to people living in the regions. GLOFs prediction and risk evaluation are critical for preventing and mitigating the negative impacts. This paper proposes a prediction model for the possibility of GLOFs, which emphasizes the selection of easily available predictors. Taking 29 glacial lakes in the Himalayas as samples, the Geodetector is used to detect 4 selected predictors: the width of dam crest, the ratio of freeboard to dam height, the area of glacial lake and the area of mother glacier. The result shows the ratio of freeboard to dam height has the largest q-value of 0.3229. In the interaction detector, the width of dam crest and the ratio of freeboard to dam height had the highest explanatory power of 0.7667 after the interaction. The GLOFs probability prediction model correctly classifies 78% of drained lakes and 90% of undrained lakes, for an overall accuracy of 86%. Taking Amazhibu Tsho as an example, calculate variation in the probability of GLOF with different predictors. The results can provide practical and efficient references for local government and people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the environmental and economic impact of cloudburst-triggered debris flow and flash flood in four villages of Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand Himalaya. On 18th July 2021 at 8:30 p.m., a cloudburst took place on the top of the Hari Maharaj Parvat, which triggered a huge debris flows and flash floods, affecting 143 households of four villages of downstream areas. Immediately after the cloudburst occurred, the authors visited four affected villages—Nirakot, Mando, Kankrari, and Siror. A structured questionnaire was constructed and questions were framed and asked from 143 heads of affected households on the impact of debris flows and flash floods on people's life, settlements, cowsheds, bridges, trees, forests, and arable land in and around the villages. The volume of debris, boulders, pebbles, gravels, and mud was assessed. It was noticed that all four villages got lots of destructions in terms of loss of life—people and animals, and property damage—land, crops, and infrastructural facilities. This study shows that the location of the settlements along with the proximity of the streams, which are very violent during the monsoon season, has led to the high impact of debris flow on the affected villages. We suggest that the old inhabited areas, which are located in the risk zones, can be relocated and the new settlements can be constructed in safe places using suitability analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cement industry is one of the main contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, specifically carbon dioxide (CO2). This paper presents the cement production and the CO2 emissions from the cement industry in Nepal. We compute emissions for the process-related, combustion-related (fuel use), and electricity-related activities during the cement production. We used eight emission factors (EFs) for the process-related, two EFs for the combustion or fuel-related, and two for the electricity-related activities using the previous researches. We computed the emissions as a product of the activities and the EFs. The estimated CO2 emission in 2019 from the cement production is 3.45 ± 0.50 million metric tons (mMt) for Nepal. In 2019, the emissions are 1.87 ± 0.16 mMt from the process-related, 1.52 ± 0.34 mMt from the combustion-related, and 0.062 ± 0.004 mMt from the electricity use activities during the cement production in Nepal. Cumulative CO2 emission was 22.73 ± 3.82 mMt from 1987 to 2019. Per capita CO2 emission is 0.12 mMt for Nepal in 2019. Nepal contributes about 0.06% CO2 emission from cement production to the global CO2 emission (2.08 Gt) from the cement industry. By evaluating per capita gross domestic product (GDP) (from 1987/1988 to 2019/2020) and the human development index (HDI) (from 1990 to 2019) with the cement production, the result shows that cement production increases significantly (p < 0.01) with an increase in the GDP and the HDI. We emphasize that the study's outputs are directly relevant to the country's emission inventory, mitigation planning, and developing a strategy for cleaner production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geologically young Himalayan mountain belt, a product of continued continent-continent collision, is a natural laboratory that has always been a sought after place for the global geoscience community to study geodynamics and natural hazards, besides many other aspects such as monsoon and climate, and natural resources. CSIR-NGRI, soon after its inception in 1961, initiated geophysical studies of the Himalaya and within the first decade a super-thick crust for the Himalaya-Tibet system by a surface wave study and upper mantle P-wave velocity down to 230 km for the Hindu Kush region by analysis of travel times of deep earthquakes were inferred. A few years later, the first ever trans-Himalayan deep seismic sounding (DSS) study by CSIR-NGRI provided further definitive evidence for crustal thickening and spatial variation of the Moho within the Kashmir Himalaya. In subsequent years, a number of seismological studies were launched, both in network and profile mode, in northeast India covering the Shillong Plateau, the eastern Himalaya, the Indo-Burmese Arc and the Assam valley, and in the northwest Himalaya covering mainly the Kumaun and Garhwal sectors. These studies yielded information about the Moho disposition, crust and upper mantle velocity structure, nature of the décollement surface, upper mantle discontinuities and the mantle transition zone, and seismic anisotropy. A good number of gravity and magnetotelluric studies have also been carried out by CSIR-NGRI to decipher the density structure, mechanical strength of the lithosphere and electrically conductive zones, respectively, and their possible correlation with seismicity. This review paper presents a synthesis of the geophysical studies carried out by CSIR-NGRI for imaging of the crust and upper mantle of the Himalayan collision belt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes the mesoscale seismic hazard zonation study carried out in the Central Seismic Gap of the Himalaya by integration of ground motion, site and earthquake-induced effects using GIS technique. Three indices, namely (i) earthquake hazard index, (ii) liquefaction susceptibility index and (iii) landslide susceptibility index were estimated for comprehensive seismic hazard zonation mapping in this area. The earthquake hazard index was estimated by integration of data such as lithology, faults, soil, landforms, Gutenberg–Richter parameter (b value), predominant frequency, amplification factor and peak horizontal acceleration using the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method. Similarly, geology and topographic parameters were integrated using the AHP method to estimate the Liquefaction Susceptibility Index. A multivariate statistical technique was used to estimate the Landslide Susceptibility Index. The three indices were combined to prepare mesoscale seismic hazard zonation map of the area which was classified into low, moderate, and high seismic hazard zones. Validation of the mesoscale seismic hazard zonation map was done using the isoseismal data of past earthquakes. High seismic hazard zones are found in the foothills and Siwalik region of the Himalaya, which consist of alluvial sand and unconsolidated sediments, whereas moderate zones are identified partially in the foothills, Siwalik and the Lesser Himalaya. This map will be useful for earthquake hazard mitigation in the NW Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trees are acknowledged as most valued gift of nature and saviour of earth, enhancing and protecting landscapes, ecosystems and production systems. An authentic database of tree flora missing from local to global scale has immense value. Formulation of conservation and management policies are difficult owing to huge variation in number of species, lack of tree cover and quantification of tree diversity. To endow with a pragmatic groundwork for quantification of tree diversity of IHR, we had published an inventory of 1466 tree species (Angiosperms and Gymnosperms) along with their taxonomically vetted scientific name, distributional range, phenological attributes (leaf persistence and flower colour), use value, congruence, endemism and threatened species. One more database on tree diversity of Western Himalaya was also published with an annotated list of tree flora compiled from unrestricted literature and e-floras related to the regions. The present paper is an attempt to bring out the overall representation of tree flora of IHR, its distributional pattern, congruence, and endemism criterion in Western and Eastern Himalaya along with correlation between the regions as well as states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A flash flood that originated from Raunthi Gad-a tributary of the Rishi Ganga river, in Garhwal Himalaya, caused unprecedented loss to lives and damaged two hydropower projects on 7th Februray 2021. In order to asses the flood magnitude, the flow parameters of the flood were calculated using the super-elevation of the flood marks preserved in the flood affected valleys. The textural characteristics of the flood deposits in the upper reaches of the valleys indicate dominance of debris flows. The peak discharge upstream of the confluence of Rishi Ganga and Dhauli Ganga was around 1.1×105 m3/s, which was four order of magnitiude higher than the normal peak discharge (∼ 3 m3/s). The flow achieved a velocity of 30±3 m/s. An exponential reduction in the flow velocity (from ∼37 to 2 m/s) with distance is observed. For which the river gradient and increase in sediment load is implied flow that along its entrained way downstream between Raini and Tapovan. Considering the sensitivity of paraglacial zones to climate change, the paper calls for detailed studies pertaining to the response of paraglacial zones to extreme weather events. Importantly, it is necessary to have more hydrological data covering multiple valleys for predictive model simulation of the nature and magnitude of such disasters in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientific research on biodiversity and conservation generates the knowledge base useful in achieving sustainability targets. The knowledge gap limits our ability to design well-founded strategies and impedes the prospects of addressing myriad conservation challenges. It is therefore important to assess trends and biases in biodiversity and conservation literature to monitor progress and make corrective actions where needed. Nepal is considered among the most biodiverse regions globally, yet little is known about the progress of biodiversity and conservation science. Here we reviewed 1098 articles published over the last fifty-six years (1964–2019) and provide a snapshot of research patterns, trends and gaps in terms research lens, physiography, ecosystem, protected area, taxonomy, ecological focus, funding, research recommendation, and research authorship and collaboration. The results of our study showed a monotonic trend of article publication until 1990, which increased significantly after 1999. There is a growing trend in the number of publications with socio-economic and multidisciplinary lens. Research publications are highly biased in favour of few taxonomic groups, mainly gymnosperms and mammals, with a preponderance of certain species, while other classes of both the plant and animal kingdoms were less studied. There was disproportionately low focus on certain physiographic regions (e.g., high Himalaya, Siwalik), ecosystem types (e.g., wetlands) and non-protected areas. Articles with an ecological focus were mainly exploratory—e.g., describing general distributions—whereas specialized ecological/evolutionary research (e.g., grazing, competition, physiology), except for genetics and climate change, were rare. More than half of the articles were authored only by foreign-based researchers, who contributed up to 89% of published articles, and consistently maintained dominance as corresponding and lead authors. There is a need to realign research efforts and support home-grown researchers with training, funding and institution-building. This requires a concerted commitment by the Government of Nepal, conservation organizations, researchers and academic institutions. There remains a great need for more empirical science to inform decision-making and consequently achieve ambitious national conservation targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalaya is one of the youngest and greatest mountain ranges in the world and is one of the world's most erosion-prone regions. Reliable information on the basin hydrology, physico-chemical weathering, and runoff dynamics is essential to develop an appropriate policies for sustainable, socially acceptable, ecological, and economically viable development of the mountainous rivers. The current study uses a numerical model and GIS tools to estimate run-off volume and sediment production rate and generates morphometric parameters like drainage network, geometry, drainage texture, aerial, and relief characteristics in the Sindh River basin of Kashmir Himalaya, to understand the erosion dynamics of the basin. The basin is dominated by a dendritic drainage pattern with a drainage density of 2.60 km/sq km. The aerial parameters such as elongation ratio, circulatory ratio, compactness coefficient, and rotundity factor show that the basin is elongated in shape with a lower peak flow period, and the basin is structurally complex with high relative relief. The estimated basin run-off volume and sediment production rate of 11.31 (sq.km-cm/sq.km) and 0.002 (ha-m/100 sq.km/year), respectively, suggest that the Sindh basin can be categorized under the low run-off zone and less soil erosion occurs when compared to other Indian Himalayan rivers. The paper aims to fill the knowledge gap concerning the estimation of hydro-sedimentological flows in the Sindh basin. In this context, present work to estimate run-off volume and sediment production rate was carried out using morphometric features to help the decision-makers in framing sustainable land use policies and practices for the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Majority of landslides in the Indian sub-continent are triggered by rainfall. Several attempts in the global scenario have been made to establish rainfall thresholds in terms of intensity-duration and antecedent rainfall models on global, regional and local scales for the occurrence of landslides. However, in the context of the Indian Himalayas, the rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrences are not yet understood fully. Neither on regional scale nor on local scale, establishing such rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrences in Indian Himalayas has yet been attempted. This paper presents an attempt towards deriving local rainfall thresholds for landslides based on daily rainfall data in and around Chamoli-Joshimath region of the Garhwal Himalayas, India. Around 128 landslides taken place in last 4 years from 2009 to 2012 have been studied to derive rainfall thresholds. Out of 128 landslides, however, rainfall events pertaining to 81 landslides were analysed to yield an empirical intensity-duration threshold for landslide occurrences. The rainfall threshold relationship fitted to the lower boundary of the landslide triggering rainfall events is I = 1.82 D ( I = rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour and D = duration in hours). It is revealed that for rainfall events of shorter duration (≤24 h) with a rainfall intensity of 0.87 mm/h, the risk of landslide occurrence in this part of the terrain is expected to be high. Also, the role of antecedent rainfall in causing landslides was analysed by considering daily rainfall at failure and different period cumulative rainfall prior to failure considering all 128 landslides. It is observed that a minimum 10-day antecedent rainfall of 55 mm and a 20-day antecedent rainfall of 185 mm are required for the initiation of landslides in this area. These rainfall thresholds presented in this paper may be improved with the hourly rainfall data vis-à-vis landslide occurrences and also data of later years. However, these thresholds may be used in landslide warning systems for this particular region of the Garhwal Himalayas to guide the traffic and provide safety to the tourists travelling along this pilgrim route during monsoon seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the first uniformly processed comprehensive database on strong motion acceleration records for the extensive regions of western Himalaya, northeast India, and the alluvial plains juxtaposing the Himalaya. This includes 146 three components of old analog records corrected for the instrument response and baseline distortions and 471 three components of recent digital records corrected for baseline errors. The paper first provides a background of the evolution of strong motion data in India and the seismotectonics of the areas of recording, then describes the details of the recording stations and the contributing earthquakes, which is finally followed by the methodology used to obtain baseline corrected data in a uniform and consistent manner. Two different schemes in common use for baseline correction are based on the application of the Ormsby filter without zero pads (Trifunac 1971) and that on the Butterworth filter with zero pads at the start as well as at the end (Converse and Brady 1992). To integrate the advantages of both the schemes, Ormsby filter with zero pads at the start only is used in the present study. A large number of typical example results are presented to illustrate that the methodology adopted is able to provide realistic velocity and displacement records with much smaller number of zero pads. The present strong motion database of corrected acceleration records will be useful for analyzing the ground motion characteristics of engineering importance, developing prediction equations for various strong motion parameters, and calibrating the seismological source model approach for ground motion simulation for seismically active and risk prone areas of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall-induced landslide masses often change into disastrous debris flows and damage large areas in Nepal's mountainous region. The area covered by debris flow inundation or debris flow runout is a most essential component for landslide hazard assessments leading to development of land use plans. However, there is presently no tool that can allow to assess and predict debris flow runout from the initial landslide on the watershed scale in Nepal. In this paper, a method and simulation tool are developed for the assessment and prediction of debris flow runout in Kulekhani Watershed, Nepal. The Flow-R model with user-defined landslide-susceptible areas was chosen for debris flow runout analysis. The Flow-R model with various algorithms has the capability to analyze debris flow inundation with limited input information. Two recent debris flow events are taken as case studies to identify the appropriate algorithms for runout analysis of the study area. After comparison of the observed and simulated results for debris flow runout, the algorithms proposed by Holmgren (Hydrol Process 8:327–334, 1994) (modified) are found suitable for the study watershed. These algorithms are employed for debris flow inundation analysis in the study area with pre-defined landslide sources plus debris flow inundation map in GIS environment. The results obtained from this modeling for the debris flow area induced by 540 mm of rainfall in 24 h period was 2.68% of the watershed, which is comparable to previously observed debris flow area in the study watershed. The findings of this research and GIS simulation tool developed will enable the optimization of planning and investment for land development in the studied region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuzzy logic is, inter alia, a simple and flexible approach of modelling that can be used in river basins where adequate hydrological data are unavailable. In order to improve the real-time forecasting of floods, this paper proposes a Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system termed as flood model Sugeno. A total of 12 input parameters were used to develop two fuzzy flood models—Mamdani and Sugeno. Whereas Sugeno FIS performed exceptionally well in predicting the river discharge, the Mamdani FIS failed to deliver the accurate results. The river Jhelum flowing through the Kashmir Valley in the northern Himalayas, India, was hit in September 2014 by a major flood and has been chosen as the case study to apply the fuzzy flood models. With a total of 24 rules in the rule base and five levels of linguistic variables, the flood model Sugeno predicted the river discharge with Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency of 0.887, coefficient of correlation (R2) of 90.74%, mean square error of 0.00122, root mean square error of 0.0349, mean absolute error of 0.0139 and combined accuracy of 0.0466. The efficiencies of the developed model show acceptable levels according to the tested performance indicators implying the potential of establishing a flood forecasting system using the developed model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents two-stage clustering approach for accurate analysis of earthquake catalogs where aim is to categorize events in terms of aftershock (AF) clusters or independent backgrounds (BGs). In stage I, the Gaussian kernel-based temporal density estimation is used for grouping of events based on their occurrence time. From the graph, local peak (maxima), local minima and their timing information are utilized to group the events into significant time zones. In stage II, on events of each time zone, coordinate and magnitude information is combined together (weighted mechanism) to determine effective local weighted spatial density ( ρ w ). Based on ρ w and event distance (δ ), a decision graph is drawn to find out the spatial cluster centroids for each time zone. Event's assignment to the centroid is carried out based on its nearest neighbor of higher density. Outliers (non-clustered) are also detected in stage II which is considered as independent backgrounds. The experimental analysis is carried out on historical seismicity of California, Himalaya, Japan and Sumatra–Andaman region. The results indicate that obtained AFs and total number of events follow a similar cumulative and λ rate, whereas BGs have linear cumulative and consistent λ rate. It is also observed that AFs and total events have similar ergodic behavior, quantified from the inverse TM metric plot. The competitive performance of the proposed approach is obtained over state-of-the-art declustering methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outcrop investigations provide a better comprehension to interrelate facies-diagenesis and fracture networks for the evaluation of reservoir potential of the carbonate rocks. In this paper, we targeted Kahi-Section (Nizampur Basin) and Peeran Tangai-Section (Kalachitta Range) to analyze structural-kinematics, Discrete Fracture Network Modelling, microfacies identification and diagenesis to interpret their impact on reservoir potential of Lockhart Limestone (Paleocene). The structural grain within the study area mostly represents the typical east-west trending tight to overturned folds and north-dipping thrust faults that mimic the north-south Indo-Eurasian collision. However, a second phase of deformation related to east-west compressions also identified which rotated the axes of preexisting structures. Fracture analysis revealed that extensional fractures are oriented at high angle to bedding and are differentiated into three orthogonal sets trending northeast-southwest, northwest-southeast and east-west, whereas, the shear fractures formed two conjugate sets trending northeast-southwest. The Lockhart Limestone was deposited in the inner ramp setting and microfacies types are packstone, wackestone and wacke-packstone with seven sub-microfacies types. It has been identified that the Lockhart Limestone has the heterogeneous distribution of diagenetic and tectonic features throughout its extent. The observed diagenetic sequence is micritization, calcite cementation, dissolution, neomorphism, pyritization and compaction. The results highlight that open and partially filled fractures may provide an interconnected network to promote fluid mobility, leading to higher values of fracture permeability. The porosity values of the pore matrix were greater than fracture, resulting a significant impact on reservoir storage capacity. In contrast, a negative impact on reservoir potential has been shown by stylolites, veins and dissolution seams. However, based on the overall studies, the Lockhart Limestone revealed the prospect of a good reservoir unit in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents community interference on agricultural ecology against climate change impacts in Lo-manthang, Upper-Mustang, Nepal. The peoples' response strategies are based on traditional agroecological knowledge. This study applied the human ecological approach (Cause ➔ Effect ➔ Response) to analyze continuity and change in the agricultural practice of the indigenous Loba community of the Trans-Himalaya. Data were generated through anthropological fieldwork using quasi-ethnomethodology. Qualitative data on changing climate was further supported by the analysis of meteorological records of last 40 years from the nearest station. The overall impression of the study is that the Lobas are hardly adapting to the dynamics of socio-environmental factors as climatic, geo-environmental, and politico-institutional changes. The strategy adopted to respond to the impacts of change on the local livelihoods is particularly associated with altering traditional agricultural practices. Indigenous knowledge-based systems of farm, labor, and resource management, accompanied by changes in food preference (food value) and linking agriculture with spiritual practice, are specific adaptation options, further supported by emerging options such as occupational modernization and migration. However, not all of these strategies produced positive outcomes in the local socio-ecological system of Lo-manthang. Therefore, policymakers should recognize Trans-Himalayan environmental uniqueness and its sensitivity to different drivers while designing policy to address them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Karakoram mountains range in north-western part of Himalayas is about 500 km in length and hosts some of the world's highest peaks and longest glaciers. It is characterized by steep slopes and polar climate. Snowfall and avalanches are observed almost throughout the year. Many lives have been lost in the past in these mountains due to avalanches. This study focuses on avalanche hazard mitigation work undertaken in eastern part of Karakoram mountains, a complex of glaciers including Siachen and other connected glaciers on the eastern side of Saltoro Ridge. From the forecasting point of view, the snowpack on the slopes of Karakoram mountains almost always has unstable layers and hence continual avalanche threat exists. The structural mitigation measures are infeasible due to steep, unstable and glaciated terrain. The method of slope stabilization by preventive triggering of small avalanches holds promise but necessary infrastructure is difficult to install and maintain. Consequently, the effective avalanche hazard mitigation in the area is a challenging task. The paper describes the general terrain, climatological and avalanche characteristics of the area. Further, it elaborates the infrastructure set up, various tools and products developed to assist the avalanche practitioners in organizing safe camping and movements in the area particularly the snow-meteorological observatory network, weather modelling products, avalanche forecasting models, terrain visualization tools, hazard mapping and risk analysis, and experiences of preventive triggering of avalanches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global environmental change (GEC) threatens to undermine the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Smallholders in marginal mountainous areas (MMA) are particularly vulnerable due to precarious livelihoods in challenging environments. Acting collectively can enable and constrain the ability of smallholders to adapt to GEC. The objectives of this paper are: (i) identify collective actions in four MMA of the central Indian Himalaya Region, each with differing institutional contexts; (ii) assess the adaptive capacity of each village by measuring livelihood capital assets, diversity, and sustainable land management practices. Engaging with adaptive capacity and collective action literatures, we identify three broad approaches to adaptive capacity relating to the SDGs: natural hazard mitigation (SDG 13), social vulnerability (SDG 1, 2 and 5), and social–ecological resilience (SDG 15). We then develop a conceptual framework to understand the institutional context and identify SDG synergies and trade-offs. Adopting a mixed method approach, we analyse the relationships between collective action and the adaptive capacity of each village, the sites where apparent trade-offs and synergies among SDGs occur. Results illustrate each village has unique socio-environmental characteristics, implying distinct development challenges, vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities exist. Subsequently, specific SDG synergies and trade-offs occur even within MMA, and it is therefore crucial that institutions facilitate locally appropriate collective actions in order to achieve the SDGs. We suggest that co-production in the identification, prioritisation and potential solutions to the distinct challenges facing MMA can increase understandings of the specific dynamics and feedbacks necessary to achieve the SDGs in the context of GEC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Himalayan rivers originating generally from >4000 masl, sustain large number of population downstream. However, these river basins are highly data scarce, and in situ data for hydro-meteorological parameters is available mainly from the regions below 2000 masl. Considering the high level of human dependence on these rivers, it is important to develop policies and plans based on the hydrology of these rivers. Thus it is important to quantify the contribution of various runoff components like snow and ice melt, baseflow, etc. This paper has used conceptual hydrological model, HBV model to estimate the composition and contribution of various runoff components, for the Chenab river basin, Western Himalayas. Similar to hydrological modelling results for other basins of western Himalayas, this study shows that snow and ice melt contribution is significant in the basin and ranges between 40–66% of the total runoff in different seasons. During the post monsoon period, baseflow sustains the perennial nature of river. This research attempts to quantify the seasonal contributions to river runoff and provides valuable insights into hydrological processes operating in this high altitude hydrological catchment to facilitate improved management of water resources in the basin. The study further outlines the uncertainty in simulating low flows in ungauged catchments being fed by snow/ice melt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kachchh region of western India is located in a plate interior region, but falls under one of the highest seismic zones of India, having very active crustal deformation and erosion. The drainage system, as well as the geomorphic evolution of the region under a semi-arid climate zone with high to very high strength of rocks in areas with high relief, is dominantly controlled by the seismic instability associated with continual tectonics. In the present paper, we have analysed a block close to the epicentre of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake to understand the role of relative active tectonics in the evolution of domal landscape morphology. Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission Digital Elevation Model data were used to extract drainage network in the GIS platform and evaluate active tectonics using different geomorphic indices of the Habo Hill, the second largest domal structure situated in Northern Hill Range of the Kachchh region. The average cumulative weightage of different geomorphic indices provides a quantitative tool, Index of Relative Active Tectonics (IRAT), which shows significant variations in and around the Habo Dome. Activation of earlier lineaments and generation of new lineaments controlled the morphometric evolution of the fault bound block of the region to form the Habo Dome. The undulating topography in addition to the domal shape of the study area resulted from the differential movements along several active transverse faults striking NE–SW, N–S, and NW–SE, and the regional faults striking E–W (the Kachchh Mainland Fault, the Kas Fault, and the Jikadi Fault). Stress propagations from the Himalayan range in the northeast and Suleiman range in the northwest are identified to be the causative factors for active tectonics and drainage anomalies in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mridula et al. (Nat Hazards 84:383-403, (2016) have tried to identify segments of two major thrust faults, the Main Boundary Thrust and Main Central Thrust, in Western Himalaya. This was done by using seismological and tectonic data where various patterns have been recognized. However, the study has used uncorrected seismological data to recognize patterns. This has serious limitations because the seismological data have huge errors with depth, which should be corrected before any pattern can be recognized. Since the earthquake data have not been corrected for depth, it is impossible to plot them on a tectonic map and to assign them to a particular fault. Such an exercise is possible only if the earthquake events are relocated for both depth and location. Further, the authors have used very old tectonic map, which has not been updated, and often the faults are not properly mapped as could be seen on the latest tectonic and topographic maps available. Thus, we aim to initiate a discussion on this and offer solutions which could improve the paper and give an opportunity for authors to rethink over their work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]