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English has increasingly become an essential second language as well as a language for international communication. However, there is little research that examines the dimensions of mobile learning for both researchers and instructional designers and focuses on effective uses of the latest mobile learning technologies for education. There have been no reviews of research on mobile English learning. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research on Mobile English Language Learning (MELL) material to initiate an evidence-based discussion on the usage of mobile learning in English language education. Findings from existing literature show that studying and reviewing mobile learning leads to a deeper understanding of its effect and possibilities with respect to learning the English language. Additionally, findings also indicate that when it comes to English language skills, vocabulary is the most-used skill, and the most common problem that studies mention is that of motivation. Further studies need to investigate other terms and keywords that reflect on the use of mobile learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the expanding use of English around the world, it is important to understand various stakeholders' attitudes towards it from a Global Englishes (GE) perspective. The GE perspective has challenged native speakerism and recognized the multilingual nature of the English language. In particular, a GE perspective leads to the sustainable development of a language from both sociolinguistic and ecolinguistic perspectives. Echoing the diversity and complexity of the English language use and teaching, this paper investigates senior high school students' attitudes towards the local variety of English in China, and unpacks their negotiation and construction of identity through their English-language learning journey. Through a series of interviews, this study found that the students still perceive English as a school subject, and see themselves as perennial learners of English. As the GE perspective was not widely recognized, and that students have not developed their awareness of the global use of English, several implications of teaching English from the GE paradigm, from curriculum design and teaching materials, are provided to increase the awareness of the global use of English. This paper also highlights the importance of viewing the development of English from an ecolinguistic perspective for the sustainable development of the language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea of the public good of higher education is closely related to the political, social and educational cultures in which higher education is embedded. It varies across contexts. However, widely used notions of the 'public' aspects of higher education, including the concepts of economic public goods and private goods, conventionally assume Anglo-American state/society/university assemblages. Anglo-American (and more generally, Western) discourses and terms are dominant in scholarship on public policy and higher education. This creates obstacles and lacunae in comparative studies, and employing solely Anglo-American notions can be especially problematic in non-Anglo-American contexts. This paper attempts to move beyond the conventional approach by conducting a lexical-based comparison of the Chinese and Anglo-American approaches to the public aspects of higher education. It identifies and explores key concepts of the public good of higher education in both the Chinese and English languages, establishing similarities and differences. The comparison contributes to a more balanced understanding of the public roles of higher education, illuminates new aspects of 'public', and may facilitate mutual understanding between scholars and between the Chinese and Anglo-American higher education systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the research output on English language education in China published in 24 international journals from 2001 to 2006 and delineates the nature of this corpus of research. The review covers research in the following areas: the linguistic situations and culture of learning in China in relation to English language education, language policy and planning, developments in English curricula and teaching methodologies and the impact of these developments on the learning of English in bilingual and multilingual circumstances, as well as the professional development of English teachers in China. The paper also identifies the gaps that future research needs to address, such as the dynamic nature of the Chinese culture of learning, the recognition of Chinese English as a variety of English, and teaching and learning in settings including non-elite colleges, secondary and primary schools, and schools for ethnic minorities. It is hoped that this stock of research informs the efforts in similar contexts to adjust national policies and curricula to contextual complexity at a macro level and encourage practitioners to have ingenious responses to their given curricula at a local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines university students' perceptions towards different English accent varieties and their non-unitary and conflicting identity (re)construction responding the changing configuration of English in China. Findings from interviews and diaries indicate that the participants' perceptions appear to be under the substantial influence of the different identities they intend to assume. The incompatibility existing in their different identities leads to identity conflicts and attitude schizophrenia. The article proposes a revision of the ongoing teaching paradigm in order to project the current spread and development of English and to attend to the genuine linguistic demands and identity appeals of English language learners in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last two years, English language teaching at the level of basic education in China has been changing very fast due to the new Standard Curriculum. The paper takes a school in the northwest of China as an example, illustrating the process of implementing the Curriculum, summarizing the work the school has done, the problems encountered and arguing for the need to manage the change. The paper also gives some suggestions in conclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A word, even when considered monosemic, generally has a cluster of meanings, depending on the mental representation of the referent by the speaker/writer or listener/reader. The variation is even more noticeable across cultures. This paper investigates the different ways in which cultural knowledge helps in the interpretation of English lexical items. After a brief review of the traditional World Englishes structural perspective, the paper analyses the various ways in which the schema helps in the construction of lexical meaning: it helps to decode the denotative meaning of some words with possible multiple interpretations; to perceive the referential boundaries; to understand the connotative meaning; to modulate meaning, demoting some features and promoting others; to understand the physical elements which contribute to the mental representation of some words; to perceive the bodily movements and other paralinguistic elements which contribute to the construction of the meaning of some words; to perceive the salience of a word within a cultural community; to perceive and predict collocates; to perceive cultural assumptions; to perceive political politeness and taboos; to distinguish transactional language from interactional language, and so on. The study is shown to have implications for lexicography and for English Language teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With China's rising role in the global economic market, both local and international employers seek graduates with well-developed communication skills in at least one additional language to complement their specific knowledge and abilities. University graduates are taught English for Specific Purposes (ESP) within their particular disciplines. This article reflects on the first author's action research, using student presentations as a pedagogical practice with first year postgraduate students not majoring in English in a Chinese university. The authors propose that ESP pedagogy needs to progress beyond the monological Chinese Confucian model of education to a dialogic, inclusive, and hospitable model of the classroom as an imagined third space where creative, critical thinking is encouraged. This research aims to contribute to Chinese ESP pedagogy, to inform international educators of developments in the education of graduates for internationalized business practice, and to contribute to the global discourse on ESP pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-stakes tests have been employed widely to engineer curriculum innovation, or achieve intended washback in education. But our understanding of the role of high-stakes tests as an agent for change is limited due to the small number of empirical studies available on this issue. This paper reports on a washback study which focuses on the writing task in the National Matriculation English Test (NMET) in China and describes both its actual and its anticipated effects on secondary school teaching. Participants in the study consisted of an extensive sample of the NMET stake-holders, comprising test constructors, teachers, and students. Data collection instruments included interviews, classroom observations, and questionnaires. The results show that although writing was practised in schools, it was not taught in the way intended by the test constructors. The communicative features of the NMET writing task were not observed in the school practice that prepared students for this task. Both teachers and learners neglected the communicative context of writing while emphasizing the testing situation and the assumed preferences of the markers. This urge to raise scores in a real test situation suggests that high-stakes tests are not an efficient agent for change despite their crucial role in education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The College English Test (CET), designed in accordance with the requirements of the National College English Teaching Syllabus and as a result of the need for China's reform and its open-door policy in the 1980s, is the world's largest language test administered nationwide. Owing to its scientific approach, consistent marking, rigorous administration and comparable scores, the CET, now well-established as a large-scale standardised EFL test, is held in high esteem by language testers and teachers inside and outside China and well received by the public. This paper begins with a review of the CET from the perspective of its development, score interpretation and test validation. The paper moves on to an in-depth analysis of the test content, test format, and candidates' performances on each component with a view to presenting readers with an overview of the proficiency of the CET test-takers. The paper then discusses the issue of reform of the CET as a response to the pressing social need for college and university graduates with a stronger communicative competence in English. After a brief analysis of the challenges facing the CET, the paper concludes with a section on the way forward for the CET to meet the ever-changing needs of society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of change has long been recognised to be a complex and challenging process. The literature has revealed few success stories and many examples of curriculum innovations being adopted haif-heartedly or not at all. Set against the increasing world globalisation of which education is a part, the cultural aspects of innovations are being increasingly discussed in recent years. This paper focuses on the cultural dimensions of a major curriculum reform in Hong Kong, the Target-Oriented Curriculum (TOC) initiative. The main principles of TOC and its early implementation are discussed. A number of the main features of TOC are analysed with particular reference to their cultural appropriateness for the Hong Kong context. The thesis underlying the paper is that cultural issues need to be more carefully considered in the policy and adoption stages of the innovation process. In English Language teaching, it may be necessary to reflect more deeply on the suitability of the export of Western-based learner-centred, communicative or task-based approaches to other milieux where such approaches may not be commensurate with the local cultural context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a classroom-based investigation into a tertiary English-medium instruction (EMI) programme in China, with a focus on subject teachers' perceptions and practices in EMI and students' motivation and needs in English learning. Given a lacuna in existing EMI research, it examined how EMI instruction was delivered by subject teachers and how English learning should be facilitated through adjunct ESP courses when participants' English proficiency was inadequate. Data were obtained from nine classroom observations, three post-observation interviews and a questionnaire survey. Findings show that effective instruction was maintained via deploying pragmatic strategies, yet the goal of promoting English attainment was underachieved, as language teaching was not overtly heeded. Subject teachers' perceptions of EMI undermined prospective students' linguistic gains. The immediate educational context also contributed to students' English learning motivation and needs. Our findings suggest increasing access to ESP provision that is fine-tuned to the language issues in genuine EMI classrooms is crucial. Collaboration between subject and language specialists is beneficial to students' learning of both the subject knowledge and the language skills. ESP practitioners thus need to consider students' communicative needs in their disciplines and address the limitations of the current EMI practices in tertiary education in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated Chinese secondary school English language teachers’ grading decision making, focusing on the factors they considered and types of assessment they used for grading. A questionnaire was issued to 350 secondary school English language teachers in China. Descriptive analyses of the questionnaire data showed that these teachers of English considered achievement and non-achievement factors in grading, placing greater weight on non-achievement factors, such as effort, homework, and study habits, and that they used multiple types of assessment, including performance and project-based assessment, teacher self-developed assessment, as well as paper and pencil tests for grading. MANOVA results suggested that both internal and external factors, such as the grade level teachers teach, the assessment training they have received, and their class size affect different aspects of their grading decision making. Multiple regression results further showed a significant relationship between the factors teachers considered and the types of assessment they used for grading. This study contributes to the understanding of the classroom English language teachers’ grading decision making in general and especially in the Chinese context and has significant implications for teacher education. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In recent years, school-based assessment (SBA) has been incorporated into the English Language subject of a traditional high-stakes public examination, the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination. As reactions from various stakeholder groups have been mixed, it was necessary to review this new practice. This paper reports on a study of 33 English language teachers who have been frontline SBA assessors. The study aimed to better understand (1) teacher-assessors’ perceptions of the English SBA, (2) their professional development needs in relation to implementing SBA, (3) their perceptions of how students could benefit from SBA and (4) the pressing issues arising from the SBA implementation. The study found that, while many participants agreed that SBA could be beneficial to students’ English learning, there was much room for improvement in all four aspects investigated. In particular, some problems identified at the very beginning of the implementation of the English SBA have still persisted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Formative assessment is increasingly being implemented through policy initiatives in Chinese educational contexts. As an approach to assessment, formative assessment derives many of its key principles from Western contexts, notably through the work of scholars in the UK, the USA and Australia. The question for this paper is the ways that formative assessment has been interpreted in the teaching of College English in Chinese Higher Education. The paper reports on a research study that utilised a sociocultural perspective on learning and assessment to analyse how two Chinese universities – an urban-based Key University and a regional-based Non-Key University – interpreted and enacted a China Ministry of Education policy on formative assessment in College English teaching. Of particular interest for the research were the ways in which the sociocultural conditions of the Chinese context mediated understanding of Western principles and led to their adaptation. The findings from the two universities identified some consistency in localised interpretations of formative assessment which included emphases on process and student participation. The differences related to the specific sociocultural conditions contextualising each university including geographical location, socioeconomic status, and teacher and student roles, expectations and beliefs about English. The findings illustrate the sociocultural tensions in interpreting, adapting and enacting formative assessment in Chinese College English classes and the consequent challenges to and questions about retaining the spirit of formative assessment as it was originally conceptualised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a case study of a group of Chinese ESL learners in China, who study English by immersing themselves regularly and rigorously in English television drama. A self-directed learning pedagogy has been developed and discussed, which seems to have signposted an effective and economic way for ESL learners to improve linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence beyond the language classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on the results of a qualitative study that explored the experiences of one group of pre-service English language teachers in Hong Kong as they undertook an action research project as part of their undergraduate teacher training programme. Grounded in a theory of teacher identity construction as both practice and discourse, the paper examines how participation in an action research project by one group of pre-service English language teachers in Hong Kong shaped their experiences of becoming teachers. The study indicates that as teacher researchers, the trainee teachers contested previously held perceptions about their engagement in teaching, their images of teachers and teaching, as well as their alignment with some aspects of contemporary educational discourse. Implications for teacher education and future research are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the spring of 2005, students and alumni of the Chinese University of Hong Kong staged an adamant protest against University directives which they perceived would result in a significant increase in the number of courses taught in English. They denounced the administration of selling out on the founding mission of the University, for which, as stated in its Ordinance, the principal medium of teaching would be Chinese. The University, on the other hand, defended its policy in the name of 'internationalization' and the need to stay ahead in the midst of severe competition at home and abroad. This paper examines this language controversy against the wider context of English hegemony and the rise of academic capitalism, two forces which are inextricably linked for the non-Western societies in a post-colonial era. I will try to show that the controversy was ultimately a struggle over the meaning of university education, between what I would call the instrumentalists and the humanists in this age of globalization. I end the paper with a pessimistic note, saying that it is the former who have gained an upper hand, and that the scope and parameters of the language debate are heavily restricted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we report on an inquiry exploring the experiences of 10 mainland Chinese student teachers of English so as to understand why they came to Hong Kong for a teacher education programme. The study revealed that these students were largely attracted to teaching in Hong Kong because of its extrinsic benefits such as professional stability, the prestige associated with the English language teaching profession and the opportunities to acquire valued skills transferable to other professions including English competence. Facing challenges as non-local students, they were also uncertain of becoming teachers in the new context. As 'elite' Chinese students were often unwilling to become teachers, we found it strategic to attract a large number of talented non-local students to the teaching profession and retain them. We conclude the paper with recommendations for various stakeholders to support these non-local students' adaptation and development as committed and competent teachers in local schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a case study of the use of language objectives within a newly developed English language teacher education programme in Hong Kong. The programme development team decided to adopt a content-based language teaching approach to support students' second language development through content learning. The teacher education programme (the content) prepares Chinese-speaking students to become secondary level English teachers. Because of students' level of English language proficiency upon entry, the programme must provide substantial support for students' English language development in addition to their learning of subject content knowledge and ELT pedagogy. There is also a government-stipulated proficiency level for all qualified English language teachers, which essentially becomes the language syllabus for the programme. The language objectives serve as a medium for mapping the language syllabus on the content curriculum. There are reasons to believe that the approach adopted has been successful in supporting students' language and content learning. This paper describes the programme development and implementation process and the problems and constraints met. The paper also shares the lessons learnt from the curriculum development and implementation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to an escalating demand for English proficiency brought about by the rapid economic, social, and cultural development in China, there has been a massive drive to expand and improve English language teaching (ELT) since the mid-1980s. Tremendous efforts and resources have been expended on upgrading the various components of ELT, including curriculums, syllabuses, textbooks, tests, and teachers' professional competence. However, not all parts of China have benefited equally from the invested efforts and resources. The economically and socioculturally developed regions differ notably from the less developed ones in the development of ELT. This paper examines regional differences in ELT in China. First, it reports on a study of 439 post-secondary Chinese students, which found clear region-based differences in their English proficiency, previous learning experiences, classroom behaviours, and language learning and use strategies. Next, it explores how a range of economic, social, cultural and pedagogical factors have jointly created such differences. The paper concludes with a critique of some recent top-down efforts directed at reducing regional disparity in ELT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the late 1980s there has been a top-down movement to reform English language teaching (ELT) in the People's Republic of China (PRC). An important component of this reform has been an effort to import communicative language teaching (CLT) in the Chinese context. CLT, however, has failed to make the expected impact on ELT in the PRC. This paper examines one of the most important potential constraints on the adoption of CLT in the Chinese classroom, namely, the Chinese culture of learning. It argues that CLT and the Chinese culture of learning are in conflict in several important respects, including philosophical assumptions about the nature of teaching and learning, perceptions of the respective roles and responsibilities of teachers and students, learning strategies encouraged, and qualities valued in teachers and students. In view of such fundamental differences, the paper contends that it is counterproductive to take an 'autonomous' attitude, rather than an 'ideological' one, to pedagogical innovations developed in a different sociocultural milieu. It concludes by arguing for the necessity of taking a cautiously eclectic approach and making well-informed pedagogical choices that are grounded in an understanding of sociocultural influences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines a ubiquitous yet under-studied area of language pedagogy, namely materials usage. It explores teachers' enactment of curriculum materials by focusing on English language education (ELE) teachers' use of prescribed textbooks to plan and deliver lessons at the tertiary level in Mainland China. A qualitative multi-case study involving three Chinese ELE teachers represents the design for this study. The interactive patterns of teachers' enactment at the pre-lesson phase were generated along with four domains of influential factors. The implications for materials development and professional development are also addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues against the notion that Chinese students do not volunteer to participate in tutorial discussion. Participation in tutorial discussion by Chinese students is, to a large extent, influenced by their traditional Chinese concepts of learning. Some traditional Chinese concepts of learning that may influence students' perception and participation in tutorial discussion include education and self-realisation, learning and effort, respect for superiors, and communication preference. Interview data obtained from a group of Chinese tertiary students in Hong Kong has shed some light on the subtle relationship between the traditional Chinese concepts of learning and students' behaviour in tutorial discussion. The students believed that their rate of participation was dependent on their efforts in preparing for tutorial discussion, acquaintance with group members and tutor guidance. They were willing to use English to express their ideas if they were well prepared. With these three factors in mind, some pedagogies are suggested for teachers. It is hoped that this paper and its recommendations can contribute to the teaching of Chinese students in both Hong Kong and overseas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students’ presentation is a research-based in-class activity to present views, supporting details or research results on a given topic. Undoubtedly, teachers play important roles in presentations and teachers’ roles are quite different from students’ roles in this activity due to the different role expectations between them. However, in most cases, neither teachers nor students are very clear about the differences between teachers’ role expectations and students’ role expectations, which results in problems such as misunderstandings, low efficiency, information asymmetry, etc. This article intends to explore these differences by conducting a questionnaire survey. The research was carried out among 60 postgraduates who major in English and 10 teachers from a normal university. Research results show great differences between teachers’ and students’ role expectations and suggestions for narrowing the gaps are also addressed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The rapid and wide spread of English has given rise to its lingua franca status, which in turn, changes the nature of English and English teaching at the tertiary level. This paper, based on a survey, discusses some of the problems with the current English curriculum used in Chinese universities and proceeds to offer some suggestions for a more appropriate university English curriculum in China in the context of English as an international language. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper reports on a classroom-based investigation into a tertiary English-medium instruction (EMI) programme in China, with a focus on subject teachers' perceptions and practices in EMI and students' motivation and needs in English learning. Given a lacuna in existing EMI research, it examined how EMI instruction was delivered by subject teachers and how English learning should be facilitated through adjunct ESP courses when participants' English proficiency was inadequate. Data were obtained from nine classroom observations, three post-observation interviews and a questionnaire survey. Findings show that effective instruction was maintained via deploying pragmatic strategies, yet the goal of promoting English attainment was underachieved, as language teaching was not overtly heeded. Subject teachers' perceptions of EMI undermined prospective students' linguistic gains. The immediate educational context also contributed to students' English learning motivation and needs. Our findings suggest increasing access to ESP provision that is fine-tuned to the language issues in genuine EMI classrooms is crucial. Collaboration between subject and language specialists is beneficial to students' learning of both the subject knowledge and the language skills. ESP practitioners thus need to consider students' communicative needs in their disciplines and address the limitations of the current EMI practices in tertiary education in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a study of ICT-related teacher development in the context of a national reform of College English teaching in China. The reform, in which emphasis was placed on use of information and communications technology (ICT) in classroom teaching and self-access learning, had challenged teachers of English as a foreign language to adapt to new teaching materials, student-centred classroom teaching and to guide students in their autonomous learning. The study examined teachers' attitudes towards ICT use in education and ICT-related continuing professional development (CPD) policies and practices in a university in southern China. Mixed methods were used: questionnaires to teachers, classroom observation, interviews with teachers, management and administrative staff, and focus groups with both teachers and students. The findings indicated that limited ICT skills and pedagogic expertise were obstacles to the use of ICT in English language teaching. Moreover, although initially the majority of teachers had held positive attitudes towards ICT use in English teaching and the national reform, their enthusiasm was waning in the light of inadequate support and training. Implications for policy and teacher education are discussed and an ICT-based CPD model for language teachers is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mother tongue education in separate schools has been in the norm for several of China's large minorities since 1949. In recent years, however, the shift in minority parental demand, media focus on low educational outcomes of mother tongue education combined with government concerns about separatism have led to the development of mixed schools for Chinese and minority students. In China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) the government plans to merge all minority mother tongue schools with Chinese schools by the end of 2008.This paper explores the reasons for this policy change and examines whether the mixed schools will address the unsatisfactory educational outcomes for minority students. It draws on data of case studies of two schools in XUAR, a rural minority primary school and an urban mixed minority/Chinese school. The study found mixed schooling does not address the disparity in educational outcomes. Minority ethnic children in both schools have insufficient access to adequate education in their mother tongue, in the national language as well as in the third language, English. It questions whether either school provides genuine bilingual education but provides an example of how bilingual education in one of the schools can address issues of educational outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University instructors' classroom assessments play a central role in and inevitably influence their teaching and their students' learning. This paper reports on a comparative interview study conducted in a range of three ESL/EFL university contexts in Canada, Hong Kong and China. Six major aspects of ESL/EFL classroom assessment practices were explored: instructors' assessment planning for the courses they taught, the relative weight given to course work and tests in their instruction, the type of assessment methods (selection vs. supply methods) that they used, the purposes each assessment was used for, the source of each method used, and when they used each method. University instructors were also asked to indicate what they saw as the advantages and disadvantages of the methods they used, and whether they took into account prior student knowledge when making decisions about what assessment methods to use. The findings contribute to a better understanding of ESL/EFL university instructors' classroom assessment practices at the tertiary level in a range of three ESL/EFL university teaching contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As English language learning becomes a hot issue in China, linguists in China and abroad are becoming increasingly interested in China English—a relatively new concept. Whether China English has acquired the status of a new English variety is still an open question. This paper reviews the acceptability of China English at home and abroad and finds that China English is still not a fully accepted form of English. However, this newly‐born English variety has great potential to be accepted as a Standard English variety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communicative techniques in English Language Teaching (ELT) have their origins in Western English-speaking contexts and have been transplanted into EFL environments. This has occurred without a great deal of research about how they work in these new situations. Group work is one well known technique of communicative language teaching now commonly used in many EFL settings. This paper reports on what actually happened when Chinese students worked in groups as part of their normal English classes. It found that one feature of the students' behaviour included codeswitching between English and Chinese during discussions. Evidence from an examination of group discussion transcripts and student interview data showed that codeswitching can fulfil a variety of functions in group discussions. It is possible that some of these functions may limit the range of communicative English outcomes originally intended for group work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports the results of a naturalistic enquiry into written request strategies in emails sent by Chinese learners of English to their teachers. A corpus of 600 emails was collected in the course of an academic year. CCARP (Cross-Cultural Speech-Act Realisation Project) segmentation and coding was used to analyse the requests contained in the messages. Results confirm some findings of research on request strategies in the Chinese language. First, the learners used direct requests when communicating with their teachers. Second, they used linguistic politeness devices that conform to the traditional teacher-student hierarchical relationship in Chinese culture. However, they tended to use requestive hints frequently. The implications of the findings for research on cross-cultural written communication are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on reforms in English-language teaching (ELT) in the People's Republic of China (PRC) since the mid-1980s. It begins with a brief review of ELT during the Cultural Revolution and in the immediate following years to provide a background against which more recent developments can be examined. It then examines recent important developments in curriculum policy, syllabus design, textbook production, examinations, and research that are producing, and will continue to exert, profound influences on ELT in the PRC. These developments are discussed not only at the national level but also with specific reference to Shanghai, which has been in the forefront of ELT reforms in the country. Also discussed are a number of issues arising from the reforms that include the demands of content-based English instruction (CBEI), teaching about target language culture, teacher training, and lack of solid empirical research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports the effects if the Expatriate English Teachers Scheme (EETS) on secondary schools in Hong Kong where it was introduced in 1987. A particular aim was to engineer a shift from Cantonese towards English in the schools where expatriate a shift from Cantonese towards English in the schools where expatriate teachers (Ets) were employed as teachers of change an essentially monolingual speech community into a more bilingual and bicultural environment for staff and students. In the research design for the schools selected for case studies, we adopted an 'ecological' approach in attempting to identify any changes in patterns f language use. The observational data revealed that the shift to English in the various domains of the school community was minimal. The validity of the observational data was tested and the causes underlying the findings were further investigated through the attitudes and opinions obtained through interviews and questioners. The adoption of the ecological approach was justified in that an innovation conceived with specific aims in mind had far broader effects within the school than had been anticipated. In general, the school ecosystem responded by isolating the intruding element and thus preserving the status quo rather than by accommodation and adaptation, as the achievement of the aims of the innovations would have required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Personal Learning Environment (PLE) represents a shift of learning paradigm towards learner-centered pedagogy, where users become masters of their own learning. PLEs are best used by learners with Self-regulated Learning (SRL) abilities. Previous research showed that learners felt lost or socially isolated in PLEs due to their limited SRL abilities. To increase the accessibility of the PLEs, this research used IDEF0 to analyze the system design of Pintrich's SRL in a PLE platform. A supervised-PLE platform was developed with International English Language Test (IELTS) as its subject matter and was pilot-tested for two years in one of the largest comprehensive universities in East China. Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) was carried out among 285 learners to test their perceptions of the PLE-IELTS platform and MOOC engagement scale (MES) survey was used among 96 learners to diagnose their engagement on the platform. The DELES survey result showed that the majority of the respondents were positive towards the PLE platform. MES survey result indicated an active engagement on the platform, with cognitive engagement scored the highest compared to social engagement as the lowest. Future research on the system design of the SRL in the PLE platform was suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In September 1998, the Education Department of the fledgling Hong Kong Special Administrative Region implemented a controversial medium-of-instruction policy which compelled around three-quarters of the territory's hitherto English-medium secondary schools to switch to Chinese-medium teaching in Forms 1-3 (years 7-9). Only 112 schools were permitted to remain English-medium, but only on the condition that their content-area teachers make consistent use of English as the language of classroom instruction and interaction rather than, as had been the case in the last two decades of colonial rule, a mixture of Cantonese and English. This article presents the findings of a study which sought to determine the extent to which the post-colonial government's language policy has been translated into classroom practice in the reformed Chinese and English streams since 1998. The findings were derived from a questionnaire survey of a sample of undergraduates from the first two cohorts to complete their studies in the reformed Chinese and English streams, together with semi-structured interviews with students and teachers currently studying and teaching in the two streams. The findings indicate that teachers in both the Chinese and English streams have found it difficult to fully implement the new policy in their classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper focuses on the development of teacher thinking, specifically L2 teachers' subject-matter cognitions, i.e. their Teacher Language Awareness (TLA) (see e.g. Andrews 2001, 2003). The study examines the evolving TLA, as it relates to grammar, of three teachers, each a graduate with more than 10 years' experience of teaching English in Hong Kong secondary schools. All three teachers took part in a previous TLA study conducted in 1996-97 (see Andrews, 1999a), when they were in their early years of teaching and had received no professional training. In the present study, these three teachers' TLA and cognitions about grammar were investigated once more (in 2004). The aim of this follow-up study was to tell the story of each teacher's evolving TLA and grammar-related cognitions. In both phases of the research a mixed methods approach was adopted. Data from the two studies suggested that the teachers' TLA and grammar-related cognitions had altered very little. Their underlying beliefs about grammar pedagogy and the role of explicit grammar teaching, and their knowledge about grammar (as measured by a test of LA) seemed largely unchanged. The main difference between the three teachers was in their interaction with the context in which they worked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the out-of-class English language learning activities of student teachers in Hong Kong, using questionnaires, interviews and learner diaries. The study Found that while many of the students devoted considerable time to studying and practising English outside the classroom, much of this time was spent on more receptive activities such as Listening and reading, rather than speaking. Students had a tendency to locus on private rather than public activities which did not involve face-to-face contact. Two students' out-of-class learning activities and their feelings towards using in English are examined in more detail. It is suggested that the reasons for their avoidance involved both individual and social/political factors, principally the implications attached to using English and the fear of negative judgement. However, it is pointed out that despite their negative feelings about using English in public, these were successful English learners who actively sought opportunities to use English in their private domain. It is suggested that the private domain may be a valuable setting for out-of-class language learning, since it is both less threatening to identity and is also easier for the student to control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers issues in customising descriptions of English grammar in the context of creating an electronic database for secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. In developing the database, we have aimed to incorporate insights from functional grammar and corpus linguistics while keeping the information accessible and relevant to teachers familiar only with traditional approaches to grammar. This has involved exploiting the advantages of hypertext, explicitly foregrounding pedagogical concerns and developing a metalanguage that will allow discussion of areas such as transitivity and theme without alienating the teacher-users. We illustrate the kinds of compromises that are necessary in order to match the linguistic information to the needs and existing knowledge of the teacher-users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent upsurge of supplementary education has brought something attention-grabbing to the mediascape in China – educational ethos, inclusive of pedagogies and teaching ideals, is being widely marketed and increasingly used as a benchmark of 'quality' in education. This study explores the ways in which educational ethos in China is advertised by companies providing supplementary English education for elementary school students (SEEE), and investigates how mainstream teachers perceive the influence of the ethos on mainstream schooling. Ethos was first mapped out through investigation of 10 leading SEEE companies' websites, and 6 mainstream teachers were subsequently interviewed. A schematic paradigm was created to capture advertised ethos which indicates bottom-up educational development towards more interactive and practical English education in China. Interview findings identify three key levels of influence on mainstream schooling: (1) institutional, including accelerating pedagogical reforms; (2) interpersonal, such as increasing teacher–parent tension, and; (3) individual views on language education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English-Medium Instruction (EMI) practices in the People's Republic of China (PRC) are still emerging and in need of further empirical investigation, in comparison to European countries. Existing research in the Asian context is mainly based on students' and teachers' perceptions and policy-related concerns. There is a remarkable lack of studies assessing students' language and content learning outcomes through objective tests. This study specifically reports on language learning outcomes data in two EMI programs, namely Film Production and International Trade, taught by non-Chinese international teachers. Pre-post discipline-specific vocabulary and writing tests as well as pre-post grammar proficiency tests were conducted over the course of one semester and after the same number of hours of exposure. Results show that almost no progress was made as regards their general English grammar proficiency, as expected, but gains were found in productive and receptive vocabulary tasks and in the three measures of the writing task. The greatest gains emerged in the International Trade group in the vocabulary tasks and no differences were observed between the groups in the writing task. Results are discussed in relation to classroom teaching practices in the two groups, which were observed three times over the course of the semester. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overall objective of this study was to investigate the constraints that have occurred regarding the first-year English language teachers' professional identity construction at five Chinese universities. The approach adopted in the study was Narrative Inquiry. Interview data with five teachers were collected and analysed through a framework that identified emergent salient themes. All the preliminary results indicated major constraints in their experiences as first-year EFL teachers in the current Chinese university context. The discussion reflects on their newly negotiated and renegotiated identity after having suffered particular dilemmas in addition to the general difficulties, and how these processes have further reformulated their outlook in ways they did not expect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teaching English for specific purposes (ESP) is widely acknowledged as highly demanding for teachers. Currently in China itself, shifting the curriculum focus from General English to ESP in the provision of English language education is regarded as a curriculum innovation. And yet, scarcely any research has probed into the challenges facing novice ESP teachers, along with their related needs for institutional support, in order to implement such a curriculum innovation successfully. To address this lacuna, we developed the ESP Teachers' Challenges and Needs Questionnaire (ESP-TCNQ), which was completed by 208 Chinese novice ESP teachers. Statistical methods were used for identifying typical patterns. Our exploratory factor analyses produced four dimensions representing major challenges and needs respectively for ESP teachers. To further verify the nature of institutional support needed, we conducted semi-structured interviews with six selected participants. Results show primarily two types of institutional support required for effective ESP provision, namely, policy and financial. They are closely related to the themes of self-directed learning, interdisciplinary liaison and collaboration, research activities, and pedagogical learning opportunities. Implications for curriculum innovation in terms of reconceptualising teacher knowledge and skills, and revisiting university organisational culture, are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Textual plagiarism is a serious violation of established academic protocols, but it requires considerable writing experience and care to avoid as well. Although student understanding of textual plagiarism and their plagiaristic behaviour in English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts have been quite well researched, few studies have sought to evaluate instructional interventions specifically designed to reduce plagiarism by empowering student writers with a better knowledge of plagiarism and skills at source referencing. To the best of our knowledge, no study to date has ever systematically assessed students' understanding of plagiarism and their source referencing performance in response to intervention. This classroom-based research, at a university in Beijing, aimed to discover whether a 6-hour block of instruction could facilitate better understanding of plagiarism and appropriate source referencing skills. The results showed that the intervention did generally give students a better appreciation of how textual plagiarism looks and significantly reduced blatant and subtle plagiarism in their writing. However, students' heavy reliance on original source language did frequently reoccur in student writing if in less clear-cut ways. Some helpful lessons were drawn from this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this opening commentary we highlight the tension surrounding the emergence and development of bilingual education programs in mainland China, which has attracted much attention in research. Scholars have contradictory views about efforts aimed at promoting and sustaining bilingualism/multilingualism through education in different parts of China. To contribute to this ongoing discussion, this special issue contains the collective efforts of scholars holding different views and examining three types of bilingual education initiatives in mainland China: bilingual education programs for ethnic minority students, the rise of Chinese-English bilingual education, and the vitality of regional Chinese varieties or dialects in major coastal cities. We contend that all the efforts to promote and sustain bilingualism in the aforementioned aspects are to some extent double-edged and require critical examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the English vocabulary development of 43 very young child English as a foreign language (FL) learners (age 3.2-6.2) in China. They were tested twice for vocabulary breadth (reception and production) and semantic depth (paradigmatic and syntagmatic vocabulary knowledge). The development of the English vocabulary knowledge between these two measurements was predicted using a series of internal factors and external factors. An exploratory mixed-effects regression analysis revealed that English use, interacting with age of English onset, significantly predicted such growth. Older children benefitted more from practicing English to enhance their English vocabulary. The amount of English input at school was found to positively impact the development of English syntagmatic knowledge. Chinese paradigmatic knowledge significantly influenced the growth of English paradigmatic and syntagmatic knowledge. These findings indicate that at least at an early stage, external factors play an important role in child FL vocabulary development, particularly in children with a later age of English onset. Furthermore, the transfer of concepts from the first language to the second language (L2) might be more pronounced with respect to L2 semantic depth than L2 vocabulary breadth. This conceptual transfer is relevant to FL learners as young as three years of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the quality of education has been a central goal of the People’s Republic of China since its founding in 1949. Particular concern has been focused on ethnic minority areas where educational quality lags behind that of other regions. Since 1986 the State Education Commission has been working toward the implementation of nine years of compulsory education for all Chinese children nationwide. Implementing this policy has been particularly challenging in the less developed areas of western China where many ethnic minorities live. The solution rests in training an adequate number of teachers who are themselves from ethnic minority groups or who are willing to teach ethnic minority children. This article reviews a significant and growing body of English-language literature, drawn from the sociology of education, on minority teachers and teachers of minorities in the People’s Republic of China. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

It is increasingly recognised that attention should be paid to investigating the needs of a new test, especially in contexts where specific purpose language needs might be identified. This article describes the stages involved in establishing the need for a new assessment of English for professional purposes in China. We first investigated stakeholders’ perceptions of the target language use activities and the necessity of the proposed assessment. We then analysed five existing tests and six language frameworks to evaluate their suitability for the need of the proposed assessment. The resulting proposal is for an advanced-level English assessment capable of providing a diagnostic evaluation of the proficiency of potential employees in areas of relevance to multinationals operating in China. The study has demonstrated the value of following a principled procedure to investigate the necessity for and the needs of a new test at the very beginning of the test development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses the education of teacher educators in the Chinese higher education system, focusing on the training of three PhD students in the English department at a Chinese university. Topics addressed include a lack of school teaching experience amongst the PhD students, as well as the students' development as teachers.