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Resumen Este artículo plantea una discusión de las corrientes de la economía que han abordado la relación entre el cambio climático (CC) con el sistema económico. Se realiza un análisis crítico de la economía del bienestar, que ve el CC como una externalidad y se enfoca en el valor presente el bienestar futuro por medio de la tasa social de descuento, y se plantea un giro hacia la economía ecológica, fundamentada en la sostenibilidad fuerte, la incertidumbre irreductible y una base normativa diferente. Con esto, se cuestiona la relevancia del crecimiento del consumo como fundamento del desarrollo. Al final del artículo, se enfatiza sobre la importancia de este giro para la investigación y la evaluación de la política climática. JEL: Q01, Q54, Q56, Q57. Abstract This paper presents a discussion of the economic theories that have addressed the relationship between climate change (CC) and the economic system. The document critically analyses the welfare economics viewpoint, which sees CC as an externality and focuses on the present value of future welfare by using a social discount rate. We propose a shift towards ecological economics, which is founded on strong sustainability, the irreducibility of uncertainty, and a different normative basis. As such, we discuss the relevancy of growth consumption as a fundament for development. The paper concludes by emphasizing the relevance of this shift for climate research and policy evaluation. JEL: Q01, Q54, Q56, Q57. Résumé Cet article propose une discussion sur les courants de l'économie qui ont traité de la relation entre le changement climatique (CC) et le système économique. Il est procédé à une analyse critique de l'économie du bien-être qui voit le CC comme une externalité et pointe la valeur actuelle du bien-être futur au moyen du taux social de décompte, et envisage un virage vers l'économie écologique fondée sur la forte soutenabilité, l'incertitude irréductible et une base normative différente, ce qui remet en question la pertinence de la croissance de la consommation comme base du développement. Pour finir, l'article souligne l'importance de ce virage pour la recherche et l'évaluation de la politique climatique. JEL: Q01, Q54, Q56, Q57. Resumo Este artigo propõe um debate sobre as correntes da economia que têm abordado a relação entre a mudança climática (MC) com o sistema econômico. É feita uma análise crítica da economia do bem-estar, que vê essa mudança como uma externalidade e se centra no valor presente ou bem-estar futuro mediante a taxa social de desconto e é proposta uma virada para a economia ecológica, fundamentada na sustentabilidade forte, a incerteza irredutível e uma base normativa diferente. Com isto, é contestada a relevância do crescimento do consumo como fundamento do desenvolvimento. No final do artigo, dá-se ênfase à importância desta virada para a pesquisa e a avaliação da política climática. JEL: Q01, Q54, Q56, Q57.

The problem of water availability and its important role in the agricultural sector, specifically in the cultivation of coffee, which has historical, cultural, and economic importance for Colombia, requires a study of the water footprint in this country. This paper presents the results of a study of the water footprint of coffee production (cultivation and wet processing) in Colombia by the traditional and ecological wet-processing methods. To this purpose, the Water Footprint Network methodology was followed according to the Water Footprint Assessment Manual (2011). The green water footprint of coffee production in Colombia was 8,746 m3 t-1 and does not have a blue water footprint as it does not require irrigation, while the gray water footprint was 7,000 m3 t-1. When the traditional wet-processing method is used, the blue water footprint is 4 m3 t-1 and the gray water footprint is 3,200 m3 t-1, while if the ecological Becolsub® technology is used, the blue water footprint is 0.60 m3 t-1 and the gray water footprint is 1,739 m3 t-1. For the Ecomill® technology, the blue one is 0.55 m3 t-1 and had no gray water footprint because it does not generate any water discharge and the little leachate that it produces is reincorporated into the process. This implies that the Becolsub® ecological processing method reduces the water footprint by 45.7% and 99.9% with the ecological Ecomill® process (no wastewater discharge) compared to traditional wet processing technology. Compared to other countries, Vietnam has the lowest green footprint in coffee cultivation, followed by Colombia, Ethiopia, Brazil, Peru, and Indonesia. The water footprint of coffee depends on the climate and yields, consequently, the water footprint of the coffee crop varies significantly between locations and the evaluation period. RESUMEN El problema de la disponibilidad de agua y su importante papel en el sector agrícola, específicamente en la presión que existe actualmente por el recurso hídrico, pero además en países como Colombia donde el cultivo del café tiene una importancia histórica, cultural y económica, lo que hace necesario un estudio de la huella hídrica de este cultivo en el país. Aquí se presentan los resultados de la huella hídrica de la producción de café (cultivo y beneficio) en Colombia, por el método de beneficio tradicional y ecológico. Para su cálculo se siguió la metodología propuesta por Water Footprint Network. La huella hídrica verde promedio del cultivo de café en Colombia es de 8.746 m3 t-1, no tiene huella hídrica azul porque no requiere riego y la huella hídrica gris es del orden de 7.000 m3 t-1. El beneficio tradicional de café no tiene huella hídrica verde, la huella hídrica azul es de 4.00 m3 t-1 y tiene una huella hídrica gris de 3.200 m3 t-1. El beneficio ecológico Becolsub® tiene una huella hídrica de azul de 0,60 m3 t-1 y una huella hídrica gris de 1.739 m3 t-1; mientras la tecnología Ecomill® sin vertimientos de aguas residuales tiene una huella hídrica azul de 0,55 m3 t-1 y no tiene huella hídrica gris porque no presenta vertimientos. Esto implica que el método de procesamiento ecológico Becolsub® disminuye la huella hídrica en un 45,7% y en un 99,9% con el proceso ecológico Ecomill® (sin descarga de aguas residuales) en comparación con la tecnología tradicional de procesamiento húmedo. A nivel mundial, Vietnam cuenta con la menor huella hídrica, seguido por Colombia, Etiopia, Brasil, Perú e Indonesia. La huella hídrica del café, depende del clima y el rendimiento del cultivo, por esta razón, la huella hídrica del cultivo de café varia significativamente con el lugar y el periodo de evaluación.

Resumen América Latina evidencia un acelerado proceso de urbanización bajo un modelo de desarrollo que genera e intensifica problemas sociales y ambientales. A esto se suman los riesgos desencadenados por el cambio climático que afectan las ciudades actuales. En Argentina sus efectos se manifiestan diferencialmente sobre las regiones, impactando en las ciudades y asentamientos. Este trabajo propone explorar el riesgo ambiental al que se enfrentan ciudades argentinas en un contexto de cambio climático en dos dimensiones: amenaza y resiliencia. Se construyeron dos índices sintéticos aplicando la metodología de Valor Índice Medio para cada dimensión y, posteriormente, se articularon los resultados definiendo categorías de riesgo. Los resultados se representaron espacialmente en un Sistema de Información Geográfica. Gran Posadas, Corrientes y Salta alcanzan las situaciones más desfavorables, continuando con Gran La Plata, Gran Mendoza, Gran San Juan, Gran Tucumán-Tafí Viejo y los partidos del Gran Buenos Aires. Se destaca la importancia de focalizar en medidas de adaptación bajo el concepto de resiliencia urbana. La apertura de nuevos interrogantes invita a profundizar en investigaciones cuyos resultados permitan avanzar hacia la sostenibilidad y resiliencia urbana a partir de su inclusión en la agenda política local. Ideas destacadas: artículo de investigación que explora el riesgo ambiental al que se enfrentan ciudades argentinas en un contexto de cambio climático. Se abordan dos dimensiones constitutivas del riesgo (amenaza y resiliencia) y se construyen índices sintéticos que luego se articulan para definir categorías aplicables a las ciudades argentinas estudiadas. Abstract Latin America shows an accelerated urbanization process and a development model that generate and intensify social and environmental problems. Added to these problems are the risks triggered by climate change that affect today's cities. In Argentina, its effects are manifested differentially over the regions, impacting cities and human settlements. In this scenario, this paper proposes to explore the environmental risk faced by Argentinean cities in a context of climate change from two dimensions: threat and resilience. For this, two synthetic indices were built using the Mean Index Coefficient methodology for each dimension and subsequently the results were articulated by defining risk categories. Results were spatially represented using a Geographic Information System. Gran Posadas, Corrientes, and Salta reach the most unfavorable situations following by Gran La Plata, Gran Mendoza, Gran San Juan, Gran Tucumán-Tafí Viejo, and the Buenos Aires counties. The importance of focusing on adaptation measures under the concept of urban resilience is highlighted. New questions arise from this work and invite further research whose results will allow progress towards sustainability and urban resilience by including them in local policies. Highlights: research article that explores the environmental risk faced by Argentine cities in a climate change context. Two constitutive dimensions of risk (threat and resilience) are addressed and synthetic indices are built and then articulated to define categories that can be applied to Argentine cities studied. Resumo América Latina apresenta um processo de urbanização acelerado sob um modelo de desenvolvimento que gera e intensifica problemas sociais e ambientais. Somados a esses problemas estão os riscos desencadeados pelas mudanças climáticas que afetam as cidades de hoje. Na Argentina, seus efeitos se manifestam de forma diferenciada nas regiões, impactando cidades e assentamentos humanos. Nesse cenário, este trabalho se propõe a explorar o risco ambiental enfrentado pelas cidades argentinas em um contexto de mudanças climáticas a partir de duas dimensões: ameaça e resiliência. Para isso, dois índices sintéticos foram construídos usando a metodologia Mean Index Coefficient para cada dimensão e, posteriormente, os resultados foram articulados pela definição de categorias de risco. Os resultados foram representados espacialmente usando um Sistema de Informação Geográfica. Gran Posadas, Corrientes e Salta alcançam as situações mais desfavoráveis, seguidas por Gran La Plata, Gran Mendoza, Gran San Juan, Gran Tucumán-Tafí Viejo e municípios de Buenos Aires. Destaca-se a importância de concentrar em medidas de adaptação sob o conceito de resiliência urbana. Novas questões surgem a partir deste trabalho e convidam novas pesquisas cujos resultados permitem o progresso em direção à sustentabilidade e resiliência urbana, incluindo-as na agenda política local. Ideias destacadas: artigo de pesquisa que explora o risco ambiental enfrentado pelas cidades argentinas em um contexto de mudança climática. Duas dimensões constitutivas de risco (ameaça e resiliência) são abordadas e índices sintéticos são construídos e articulados para definir categorias que podem ser aplicadas às cidades argentinas estudadas.

More than two decades ago we have been working steadily to providereaders and scientific community with articles on a broad range of geosciences field around the world. This achievement would not be possible without the support of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, mainly, and partners who help bring these high-quality papers to light. One of those partners is Colciencias, a Colombian Government-owned agency that support research in our country. Currently, Colciencias is carrying out a national strategic plan for Science, Technology and Innovation in Geosciences aimed to promote and develop megaprojects in the area, provide a management tool, and create a fund with resources coming from contracts of exploration and exploitation of petroleum.This 2015-2018 plan should result in the creation of new research groups, improvement of investigation centers, recognition of researchers and the double of resources in funding for projects. Similar strategies are carried out by the Centro de Geociencias, at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Their primary objective is to gather the experience of their academicians to produce fundamental and applied investigation under the high-quality requirements. In Venezuela, the Non-Government Organization Fundacion Geoparques de Venezuela, under the motto "Geosciences for Human Development", promotes research and divulgation of earth sciences with communities as the head axis. Just these examples but in several countries of Latin America Government or Non-Government Entities work for the development of Geosciences. Our call is for regional collaboration optimizing resources, promotion of open journal publications, no isolated academic communities, etcetera. On the other hand, find available our newest volume with a selection of ten works of the best quality in different subjects of the Earth Sciences. The first of them is a complete map of the seismotectonic and geologic hazards in Iran evaluated using seismicity records, structural trends, tectonic settings, fault ruptures and neotectonics activities in the country. From Colombia, the second manuscript is an approaching to the skarn and formation of the Ti-clinohumite from its occurrence and petrologic significances. From China, but also in Petrology subject, a paper presents geochemistry and petrography of the amphiboles and plagioclase from Fenghuangshan granodiorite. Combining with the barometry and thermometry analysis, the author estimates the conditions of the Fenghuangshan magmatic rocks and explains the origin of the magma. Moreover, evaluate the deeper exploration of copper mineralization prospecting potential.In applied geophysics, a paper coming from Jordan provides information about integration of data obtained from geophysical methods, GIS and the previous works and literature review of geology in southwestern Jordan.About geomorphology, it is presented an altimetric and hypsometric analysis, with a longitudinal profile and geomorphological studies, for soil and water conservation based in the basins of Anjani and Jhiri rivers. As part of the strategies to warrant water resources, the method presented in next work is accomplished to be more efficient and cheaper to estimate runoff in a case based in Tamilnadu District, in India. Related to climatic change, one of the authors investigated the correlation of some climatic indicators with precipitation and discharge of Madarsoo (Iran) watershed. It is a meaningful study in the context of global climate change.The last block is dedicated to three works in the field of geotechnics, in areas of roads, construction of concrete piles and evaluation of polypropylene fibers for mining and civil engineering applications. We hope this articles will be useful for everyone of you. Carlos VargasEditor in Chief, Earth Sciences Research JournalMore than two decades ago we have been working steadily to provide readers and scientific community with articles on a broad range of geosciences field around the world. This achievement would not be possible without the support of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, mainly, and partners who help bring these high-quality papers to light. One of those partners is Colciencias, a Colombian Government-owned agency that support research in our country. Currently, Colciencias is carrying out a national strategic plan for Science, Technology and Innovation in Geosciences aimed to promote and develop megaprojects in the area, provide a management tool, and create a fund with resources coming from contracts of exploration and exploitation of petroleum. This 2015-2018 plan should result in the creation of new research groups, improvement of investigation centers, recognition of researchers and the double of resources in funding for projects. Similar strategies are carried out by the Centro de Geociencias, at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Their primary objective is to gather the experience of their academicians to produce fundamental and applied investigation under the high-quality requirements. In Venezuela, the Non-Government Organization Fundacion Geoparques de Venezuela, under the motto "Geosciences for Human Development", promotes research and divulgation of earth sciences with communities as the head axis. Just these examples but in several countries of Latin America Government or Non-Government Entities work for the development of Geosciences. Our call is for regional collaboration optimizing resources, promotion of open journal publications, no isolated academic communities, etcetera. On the other hand, find available our newest volume with a selection of ten works of the best quality in different subjects of the Earth Sciences. The first of them is a complete map of the seismotectonic and geologic hazards in Iran evaluated using seismicity records, structural trends, tectonic settings, fault ruptures and neotectonics activities in the country. From Colombia, the second manuscript is an approaching to the skarn and formation of the Ti-clinohumite from its occurrence and petrologic significances. From China, but also in Petrology subject, a paper presents geochemistry and petrography of the amphiboles and plagioclase from Fenghuangshan granodiorite. Combining with the barometry and thermometry analysis, the author estimates the conditions of the Fenghuangshan magmatic rocks and explains the origin of the magma. Moreover, evaluate the deeper exploration of copper mineralization prospecting potential. In applied geophysics, a paper coming from Jordan provides information about integration of data obtained from geophysical methods, GIS and the previous works and literature review of geology in southwestern Jordan. About geomorphology, it is presented an altimetric and hypsometric analysis, with a longitudinal profile and geomorphological studies, for soil and water conservation based in the basins of Anjani and Jhiri rivers. As part of the strategies to warrant water resources, the method presented in next work is accomplished to be more efficient and cheaper to estimate runoff in a case based in Tamilnadu District, in India. Related to climatic change, one of the authors investigated the correlation of some climatic indicators with precipitation and discharge of Madarsoo (Iran) watershed. It is a meaningful study in the context of global climate change. The last block is dedicated to three works in the field of geotechnics, in areas of roads, construction of concrete piles and evaluation of polypropylene fibers for mining and civil engineering applications. We hope this articles will be useful for everyone of you. Carlos Vargas Editor in Chief, Earth Sciences Research Journal

RESUMEN Las turberas son ecosistemas de humedal acumuladores de materia orgánica con inundación permanente lo que los hace una reserva y sumidero de carbono. Las turberas ubicadas en los páramos ayudan a mantener el balance hídrico de los ecosistemas alrededor y regulan la distribución del agua usada por comunidades humanas. Actualmente, las turberas son afectadas por el cambio climático, el cual desequilibra el balance entre la producción de material vegetal y la descomposición. Las turberas dominadas por Distichia muscoides son particularmente importantes por su dependencia con la hidrología glaciar. El presente artículo expone una reconstrucción climática de los últimos 200 años, mediante el reconocimiento de la sucesión vegetal registrada en dos núcleos de turberas, ubicados en la Sierra Nevada del Cocuy. La vegetación reconstruida fue comparada con registros históricos de temperatura y precipitación. Nuestros resultados muestran diferencias en las trayectorias de la vegetación, con un aumento en la producción vegetal y dominancia de D. muscoides en las últimas dos décadas, relacionado con incrementos en temperatura. El balance hídrico positivo generado por el aumento global en la temperatura trae como resultado la abundancia de plantas vasculares para la turbera. El efecto del Niño de 1998 se ve reflejado en un cambio importante en las trayectorias de la vegetación de los dos sitios hacia turberas dominadas por musgos diferentes a Sphagnum que limitan la capacidad de la turbera de almacenar materia orgánica. Los efectos del cambio climático se ven multiplicados por fenómenos como la anomalía del Niño que pueden alterar la evolución de un ecosistema rápidamente, incluso de aquellos ecosistemas con alta resiliencia como las turberas. ABSTRACT Peatlands are permanently flooded wetland ecosystems that accumulate organic matter, which is what makes them carbon sinks and resevoirs. Peatlands that are located in páramos help to maintain water balance in surrounding ecosystems and regulate the distribution of the water used by human communities. Currently, peatlands are affected by climate change, which disrupts the balance between plant production and decomposition. Peatlands dominated by Distichia muscoides are particularly important since they depend on glacial hydrology. This paper presents a climatic reconstruction over the last 200 years, based on the vegetation succession history recorded in core samples from two peatlands located in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy. The reconstructed vegetation was compared with historical records of temperature and precipitation. Our results showed differences in the trajectories followed by the vegetation, with an increase in plant production and dominance of D. muscoides over the last two decades related to increases in temperature. The positive water balance generated by the global increase in temperature and glacial melting results in an abundance of vascular plants in the turbera. The effect of the El Niño event of 1998 is reflected in a major change in the trajectories of the vegetation at the two sites, with Sphagnum peat being replaced by peat formed from different mosses, limiting the ability of the peatland to store organic matter. The effects of climate change are multiplied by phenomena such as El Niño that can rapidly alter the evolution of an ecosystem, even one as highly resilient as peatlands.

En los Andes tropicales, el límite altitudinal de los bosques corresponde a una compleja zona de transición entre el bosque paramero y el páramo andino. En el límite inferior de esta zona ocurre a su vez una transición gradual entre el bosque y las selvas nubladas. La ordenación del territorio en estos ecosistemas se ha convertido en un tema prioritario en virtud de la creciente amenaza que representan para su conservación las actividades agropecuarias y la minería. En este trabajo se revisaron las investigaciones realizadas en la Cordillera de Mérida (Venezuela) sobre los cambios en la estructura, diversidad y respuesta a disturbios de la vegetación a lo largo del ecotono bosque-páramo. Los resultados de estas investigaciones documentan la alta riqueza de especies y formas de vida que caracterizan la vegetación del ecotono, así como una alta tasa de recambio de especies a lo largo del gradiente de elevación. Así mismo, estudios sobre la dinámica sucesional de la vegetación en áreas intervenidas por la agricultura en diferentes posiciones a lo largo de la transición, indican que las leñosas del bosque muestran una capacidad mucho menor de colonización de las áreas perturbadas que las especies dominantes del páramo. Con base en la evidencia disponible, se discuten elementos estructurales que pueden servir de base para la delimitación de los ecosistemas presentes en la zona de transición y se enfatiza la necesidad de diseñar estrategias de conservación y restauración asistida que partan de interpretar el ecotono bosque-páramo como una unidad dinámica integrada.Vegetation Structure, Diversity and Dynamics in the Forest-Paramo Ecotone: A Review of the Evidence in the Cordillera de MéridaIn the tropical Andes, the mountain treeline corresponds to a complex transition zone between páramo forests and páramos. In the lower limit of this ecotone there is a more or less gradual transition between mountain cloud forests and páramo forests. Land planning in these ecosystems has become a highly topical subject given the growing threat for conservation generated by agricultural and mining activities. In this paper we review the research carried out in the Cordillera de Mérida (Venezuela) on the changes in vegetation structure, diversity and response to disturbance along the forest-páramo transition zone. The results of these studies document the high species and life form richness which characterize the ecotone vegetation, as well as a high rate of species turnover (beta diversity) along the elevation gradient. Studies on elevation changes in vegetation successional dynamics in plots disturbed by agriculture at different altitudes along the transition zone indicate that forest woody species have a lower capacity to colonize disturbed areas than dominant páramo species, a process that results in forests patches with a paramo physiognomy. On the basis of the available evidence, the structural elements that could be used for delimiting the different ecosystems present along transition zone are discussed, emphasizing the need to design conservation and restoration strategies which interpret the forest-páramo ecotone as a dynamic and integrated system.