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L’Estadística Territorial de 1858, i els Estados sobre la producció i comercialització dels principals productes agraris a la província de Barcelona el 1859-67, permeten constatar la persistència del cultiu de cereals al 44% de la superfície conreada. Uns rendiments mitjans de 15-16 Hl/Ha donaven abast al 39% de les necessitats de consum de la població. La resta requeria importar un milió d’Hl anuals de blat. Una anàlisi acurada de la seva geografia revela les raons agroecològiques, econòmiques i socials d’aquella especialització cerealícola a la franja nordoriental més humida, coetània de l’especialització vitícola predominant al sud-oest més àrid de la província., The Territorial Statistics of 1858, and the Estados on production and trade of the main agricultural products in the province of Barcelona in 1859-67, allow us to confirm the persistence of cereal growing in 44% of the cropped area. A mean yield of 15-16 hl/ha covered nearly 39% of the consumption required by the population, while one million hl of imports were needed yearly. A precise analysis of the geography reveals the agro-ecological, economic and social reasons behind the wheat specialization in the most humid north-east border of the province while its south-west arid counterpart experienced an intense vineyard specialization.

[eng] Rice belongs to the Poaceae family and Oryza genus. The genus Oryza comprehends 24 species, being 22 wild and 2 cultivated. These two cultivated species correspond to Oryza sativa, originated in Asia, nowadays cultivated and consumed worldwide, and Oryza glaberrima, originated in Africa, but cultivated and consumed limitedly in West Africa, both are diploid (2n=24) (Bernis & Pamies, 2006; Wei & Huang, 2019). Traditionally, Oryza sativa has been classified into two subspecies, indica and japonica. Molecular analyses, as well as biochemical and hybrid sterility analyses, point out at the separate domestication of Oryza rufipogon populations as the origin for these two subspecies (Garris et al., 2005; Rakshit et al., 2007; Wei et al., 2012), with a gene flow present from japonica to indica (Yang et al., 2012). Indica rice is usually long grained, less sticky and with a lower level of amylopectin than japonica rice, which is short grained and sticky. There are also phenotypical differences between these subspecies, for example, japonica plants are generally shorter, the leaves have a lighter color and shaper shape. Also, the tiller number is lower in japonica than in the indica plants (Wei & Huang, 2019). The O. sativa plant is a semiaquatic annual monocot grass although rice can live as perineal in the tropics (McLean et al., 2013). The plant has a height that varies from 80 to 150 centimeters depending on the variety and growing conditions (Bernis & Pamies, 2006), or even less in modern varieties. Its morphology varies according to the development stage, this being the vegetative phase or the reproductive phase. The vegetative phase includes the germination, the seedling and the tillering stage. The reproductive phase comprehends panicle initiation, also called heading, and flowering stages. As a food, rice contributes to the 20% of calories ingested worldwide (Kubo & Purevdorj, 2004), reaching half of the calories ingested daily in some areas (Counce et al., 2000). In terms of consumption, as well as production, Asia is the main continent (McLean et al., 2013). The rice production and consumption in Europe is minor compared to Asia. Despite that, rice holds an important sociocultural role since it is one of the basic foods of the Mediterranean diet. Some regions have developed famous rice dishes, like risotto in Italy or paella in Spain. The annual rice consumption per capita in Europe is 6-18 kilograms in the southern regions, and 3.5-5.5 kilograms in the northern regions (McLean et al., 2013). The main European producer is Italy, followed by Spain. These two countries hold more than 75% of the total rice production in Europe. Rice in Europe is also of ecological importance, due to the great biodiversity that inhabits and benefits from the paddy fields. Around 70-80% of rice cultivated in Europe are japonica varieties, and the rest indica (Bernis & Pamies, 2006; Ferrero, 2007). Agriculture is the most important bioeconomy sector in Spain, with a value of 43.8 million of euros in 2015 and coping the 50.9% employment of all bioeconomy sectors (Lániez & Periago, 2016). Rice mobilized 258.766 millions of euros in Spain in 2019 (MINECO, 2019). Thus, the studies dedicated to improving different aspects of the rice production in Spain are crucial. This thesis has made a multidisciplinary approach, from genetics to the field, in order to study Mediterranean rice varieties considering its actual applicability for the Spanish rice industry through three experimental approaches: (i) an improvement of the anther culture protocol for two Mediterranean temperate japonica varieties and two tropical japonica varieties trough the addition of additives to the media; (ii) testing the salt-tolerance of Saltol-introgressed varieties to select those that will help to fight the apple snails plague in the Ebro Delta; and (iii) a study of genetic and physicochemical aspects of the rice pearl in five Mediterranean varieties, an important feature in gastronomical terms.

[eng] Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is without doubt one of the major crops worldwide, as its consumption is continuously increasing, especially in low- and lower-middle-income countries where it is the most important staple. This cereal has been domesticated for a long time, result of which several species and varieties are now available. It was key during the green revolution when its production increased in more than 2-fold times, and in addition has a deep cultural background in all the regions where it is grown. Hence, it is of uttermost importance for researchers and breeders to broaden and expand the knowledge on this cereal on all the study and research areas, especially now that we are living in the 21st century, which is marked by climate change. This phenomenon is one of the most menacing as it will reduce the quantity and quality of arable land due to salinization of soil as well as water scarcity which is the single and most important factor that determines global crop yields. In this sense, this thesis addresses to three important topics on rice that will help researchers and breeders for the improvement of rice varieties in the forthcoming future: (i) Analysis of salinity tolerant rice plants subjected to high salt concentration through a combined approach of shotgun proteomics and physiological characterization for the identification of new key proteins involved in the tolerance to this stress. In this study we provide a huge database for future studies of the salinity-stress response in rice varieties harboring the Saltol region, as we detected more than 2000 proteins involved during the early stages of salinity stress in the shoots and roots of the FL478 rice line. Moreover, this study highlights the importance of examining both the shoots and roots because their salinity tolerance traits are different and respond to different requirements of the rice plant. Finally, the information presented here expands our knowledge on adaptive processes under high salinity in rice plants and, notably, in rice roots. (ii) Phytohormones analysis in dwarf varieties through a broad phytohormone profiling method developed during this thesis for the characterization of phytohormone levels during the development of plants with contrasting heights that will allow to have more information for developing new dwarf mutant varieties. In this work, we reported that GA19 seems to have a crucial role in gibberellin availability in rice as its levels were much higher than all the other gibberellins in all tissues. In addition, it has been demonstrated that the GA20ox-2 mutation is not the only factor affecting height in rice, as a mutated variety had an increased growth during the half of its development period. Finally, we established for the first time a simple and broad phytohormone extraction and detection protocol that allows to identify 13 gibberellins and ABA, JA and IAA in several tissues at different phenological stages. (iii) Improvement and enhancement of anther culture protocols in rice for obtaining higher rates of stabilized green double haploid plants using different cold-pretreatments and additives in the growing media such as hormones and antimitotics in the growing media for their subsequent commercialization. It was evidenced that the best cold-pretreatment was 10ºC for 9 days, and that colchicine addition greatly enhances the production of green double haploid plantlets. Moreover, we have introduced for the first time a post-anther culture treatment with good prospects. Finally, several of the rice lines produced were assayed in rice paddy fields where they displayed good agronomical behavior., [spa] El arroz (Oryza sativa L.) es sin duda uno de los principales cultivos del mundo, especialmente en países en vías de desarrollo donde es el alimento básico, teniendo además un importante componente cultural. Fue clave en la revolución verde cuando su producción aumentó más del doble. En el siglo 21 marcado por el cambio climático, se verá reducida la cantidad y calidad de las tierras cultivables debido a la salinización del suelo y la escasez de agua. Por tanto, es de gran importancia para los investigadores y mejoradores ampliar el conocimiento que se tiene sobre este cereal en todas las áreas de estudio. En este sentido, esta tesis abordó tres temas importantes referentes a este cereal: (i) Un estudio del proteoma, de la parte aérea y radicular, de plantas de arroz tolerantes a la salinidad sometidas a una alta concentración de sal con el objetivo de identificar de nuevas proteínas clave involucradas en la tolerancia a este estrés. Proporcionamos una gran base de datos, más de 200 proteínas involucradas en este estrés y destacamos la importancia de las raíces para la tolerancia a este estrés. (ii) Análisis de fitohormonas en variedades enanas a través de un amplio y rápido método desarrollado durante esta tesis que permite, por primera vez en arroz, la extracción y detección de fitohormonas que posibilida la identificación de 13 giberelinas y ABA, JA e IAA en varios tejidos en diferentes etapas fenológicas. Se observó que la GA19 parece tener un papel crucial en la disponibilidad de giberelinas en el arroz, ya que sus niveles son los más elevados en todos los tejidos. La mutación GA20ox-2 no es el único factor que afecta la altura ya que la variedad mutada alcanza la altura de variedades wild-type. (iii) Por último, se reportan dos métodos de aumento de la eficiencia del protocolo de cultivo de anteras, técnica muy útil para la obtención de plantas de arroz dihaploides estables. El aumento del rendimiento se debió a nuevos pretratamientos de frío, así como la modificación de los medios de cultivo mediante diferentes concentraciones de hormonas y colchicina. Se introdujo, por primera vez, un tratamiento de diploidización para plantas haploides.

[eng] It is of strategic importance for Mediterranean agriculture to develop new varieties of durum wheat with greater production potential, together with a better adaptation to adverse environmental conditions and better quality of grain. While durum wheat, which is the most strategic crop in the south Mediterranean agriculture, has benefited as other cereals of the Green Revolution, genetic progress in recent decades has been less evident, partly masked by climate change, and the underlying physiological mechanisms are not evident. For this propose, the objective is to evaluate whether there have been agronomic and physiological changes associated with the genetic improvement of durum wheat grown in Spain after the Green Revolution and the environmental conditions where breeding gains have been higher. The study was based on a collection of 20 commercial varieties, grown in Spain between the beginning of the 70s of the last centuries and the present. The set was readapted during the last two cropping cycles and increased to a total of 23 cultivars, including more recent cultivars, released during the present decade. Cultivars were compared through consecutive years in wide range growing conditions secured by growing in three different sites differing in latitude and temperature, together with the implementation of support irrigation and different planting times. Changes in the genetic gain of the yield were evaluated between 2014 and 2016. Change in the agronomic and physiological parameters related to the genetic progress was evaluated between 2015- 2016, and the changes caused by the improvement in the adaptation patterns through the study of the genotype by environment (GE) interaction was evaluated between 2017 and 2018. It has been observed that the rate of genetic progress in the yield of durum wheat in Spain after the Green Revolution has been low it was estimated on 24 kg ha-1 y-1 (0.44% y-1 in term of relative gain) between 1980 and 2003 and has even stopped during the last decade until 2010. It was mainly due to increases in the number of kernels per spike (117 kernels m-2 y-1), and spikes per unit area (0.24 kernels spike-1 y-1), while no clear trend in some grain quality traits (TKW and grain N concentration). Moreover, areal biomass at harvest and grain nitrogen yield increased with the year of release of the cultivars for the entire period. In addition, it has been observed that the more productive genotypes were characterized by a plant height of around 85 cm, small erect flag leaves, more open stomata, a better balance between N sources and N sinks and a higher capacity to re-fix CO2 respired by the grain. Moreover, in general the non-laminar parts of the plants play a key role in providing assimilates during grain filling. Also, that the high heritability of most of the studied parameters allows their consideration as traits for phenotyping durum wheat better adapted to a wide range of Mediterranean conditions. On the other hand, an improvement in genetic yield has been reported in warm environments and under optimal water conditions, environments similar to those of from where the germplasm provenance release or origin. The adaptation of semi-dwarf durum in Spain has shown a tendency to specific adaptation rather than large-scale adaptation. Two different patterns of selection have been reported due the G×E interaction and change in the ranking of genotypes: in the high yielding environments, plant favors more water uptake, with more transpiration and more open stomata (more negative value of δ13C, whereas, in low yielding environments, plant close stomata and favors more water use efficiency (positive value of δ13C)., [spa] El trigo duro, que es el cultivo más estratégico en la agricultura del sur del Mediterráneo, se ha beneficiado como otros cereales de la Revolución Verde, el progreso genético en las últimas décadas ha sido menos evidente, en parte enmascarado por el cambio climático, y los mecanismos fisiológicos subyacentes no son evidentes. Se ha observado que la tasa de progreso genético en el rendimiento del trigo duro en España después de la Revolución Verde ha sido baja, se estimó en 24 kg ha-1 año-1 entre 1980 y 2003 e incluso se detuvo durante la última década hasta 2010. Se debió principalmente al aumento en el número de granos por espiga, y espigas por unidad de área, aunque no hay una tendencia clara en algunos rasgos de calidad de grano (TKW y concentración de N de grano). Además, la biomasa área en la cosecha y el rendimiento de nitrógeno en grano aumentó con el año de liberación de los cultivares durante todo el período. Además, se ha observado que los genotipos más productivos se caracterizaron por una altura de planta de alrededor de 85 cm, pequeñas hojas de bandera erectas, estomas más abiertos, un mejor equilibrio entre las fuentes de N y los sumideros de N y una mayor capacidad para re-fijar CO2 Respirado por el grano. Además, en general, las partes no laminares de las plantas juegan un papel clave en el suministro de asimilados durante el llenado del grano. Por otro lado, se ha informado una mejora en el rendimiento genético en ambientes cálidos y en condiciones óptimas de agua, ambientes similares a los de donde se origina el germoplasma. La adaptación del durum semi-enano en España ha mostrado una tendencia a la adaptación específica en lugar de la adaptación a gran escala. Se han informado dos patrones diferentes de selección debido a la interacción G × E: en los entornos de alto rendimiento, la planta favorece una mayor absorción de agua, con más transpiración y más estomas abiertos, mientras que, en entornos de bajo rendimiento, planta estomas cercanos y favorece una mayor eficiencia en el uso del agua.

[eng] Global climate change effects on agroecosystems together with increasing world population is already threatening food security and endangering ecosystem stability. Meet global food demand with crops production under climate change scenario is the core challenge in plant research nowadays. Thus, there is an urgent need to better understand the underpinning mechanisms of plant acclimation to stress conditions contributing to obtain resilient crops. Also, it is essential to develop new methods in plant research that permit to better characterize non-destructively plant traits of interest. In this sense, the advance in plant phenotyping research by high throughput systems is key to overcome these challenges, while its verification in the field may clear doubts on its feasibility. To this aim, this thesis focused on wheat and secondarily on maize as study species as they make up the major staple crops worldwide. A large panoply of phenotyping methods was employed in these works, ranging from RGB and hyperspectral sensing to metabolomic characterization, besides of other more conventional traits. All research was performed with trials grown in the field and diverse stressor conditions representative of major constrains for plant growth and production were studied: water stress, nitrogen deficiency and disease stress. Our results demonstrated the great potential of leave-to-canopy color traits captured by RGB sensors for in-field phenotyping, as they were accurate and robust indicators of grain yield in wheat and maize under disease and nitrogen deficiency conditions and of leaf nitrogen concentration in maize. On the other hand, the characterization of the metabolome of wheat tissues contributed to elucidate the metabolic mechanisms triggered by water stress and their relationship with high yielding performance, providing some potential biomarkers for higher yields and stress adaptation. Spectroscopic studies in wheat highlighted that leaf dorsoventrality may affect more than water stress on the reflected spectrum and consequently the performance of the multispectral/hyperspectral approaches to assess yield or any other relevant phenotypic trait. Anatomy, pigments and water changes were responsible of reflectance differences and the existence of leaf-side-specific responses were discussed. Finally, the use of spectroscopy for the estimation of the metabolite profiles of wheat organs showed promising for many metabolites which could pave the way for a new generation phenotyping. We concluded that future phenotyping may benefit from these findings in both the low-cost and straightforward methods and the more complex and frontier technologies., [cat] Els efectes del canvi climàtic sobre els agro-ecosistemes i l’increment de la població mundial posa en risc la seguretat alimentària i l’estabilitat dels ecosistemes. Actualment, satisfer les demandes de producció d’aliments sota l’escenari del canvi climàtic és el repte central a la Biologia Vegetal. Per això, és indispensable entendre els mecanismes subjacents de l’aclimatació a l’estrès que permeten obtenir cultius resilients. També és precís desenvolupar nou mètodes de recerca que permetin caracteritzar de manera no destructiva els trets d’interès. L’avenç del fenotipat vegetal amb sistemes d’alt rendiment és clau per abordar aquests reptes. La present tesi s’enfoca en el blat i secundàriament en el panís com a espècies d’estudi ja que constitueixen els cultius bàsics arreu del món. Un ampli ventall de mètodes de fenotipat s’han utilitzat, des sensors RGB a híper-espectrals fins a la caracterització metabolòmica. La recerca s’ha dut a terme en assajos de camp i s’han avaluat diversos tipus d’estrès representatius de les majors limitacions pel creixement i producció vegetal: estrès hídric i biòtic i deficiència de nitrogen. Els resultats demostraren el gran potencial dels trets del color RGB (des de la planta a la capçada) pel fenotipat de camp, ja que foren indicadors precisos del rendiment a blat i panís sota condicions de malaltia i deficiència de nitrogen i de la concentració de nitrogen foliar a panís. La caracterització metabolòmica de teixits de blat contribuí a esbrinar els processos metabòlics endegats per l’estrès hídric i la seva relació amb comportament genotípic, proporcionant bio-marcadors potencials per rendiments més alts i l’adaptació a l’estrès. Estudis espectroscòpics en blat van demostrar que la dorsoventralitat pot afectar més que l’estrès hídric sobre l’espectre de reflectància i consegüentment sobre el comportament de les aproximacions multi/híper-espectrals per avaluar el rendiment i d’altres trets fenotípics com anatòmics i contingut de pigments. Finalment, l’ús de l’espectroscòpia per l’estimació del contingut metabòlic als teixits de blat resulta prometedor per molts metabòlits, la qual cosa obre les portes per a un fenotipat de nova generació. El fenotipat pot beneficiar-se d’aquestes troballes, tant en els mètodes de baix cost com de les tecnologies més sofisticades i d’avantguarda.

[eng] World cereal stocks need to increase in order to meet growing demands. Currently, maize, rice, wheat, are the main crops worldwide, while other cereals such as barley, sorghum, oat or different millets are also well placed in the top list. Crop productivity is affected directly by climate change factors such as heat, drought, floods or storms. Researchers agree that global climate change is having a major impact on crop productivity. In that way, several studies have been focused on climate change scenarios and more specifically abiotic stresses in cereals. For instance, in the case of heat stress, high temperatures between anthesis to grain filling can decrease grain yield. In order to deal with the climate change and future environmental scenarios, plant breeding is one of the main alternatives breeding is even considered to contribute to the larger component of yield growth compared to management. Plant breeding programs are focused on identifying genotypes with high yields and quality to act as a parentals and further the best individuals among the segregating population thus develop new varieties of plants. Breeders use the phenotypic data, plant and crop performance, and genetic information to improve the yield by selection (GxE, with G and E indicating genetic and environmental factors). More factors must be taken into account to increase the yield, such as, for instance, the education of farmers, economic incentives and the use of new technologies (GxExM, with M indicating management). Plant phenotyping is related with the observable (or measurable) characteristics of the plant while the crop growing as well as the association between the plant genetic background and its response to the environment (GxE). In traditional phenotyping the measurements are collated manually, which is tedious, time consuming and prone to subjective errors. Nowadays the technology is involved in many applications. From the point of view of plan phenotyping, technology has been incorporated as a tool. The use of image processing techniques integrating sensors and algorithm processes, is therefore, an alternative to asses automatically (or semi-automatically) these traits. Images have become a useful tool for plant phenotyping because most frequently data from the sensors are processed and analyzed as an image in two (2D) or three (3D) dimensions. An image is the arrangement of pixels in a regular Cartesian coordinates as a matrix, each pixel has a numerical value into the matrix which represents the number of photons captured by the sensor within the exposition time. Therefore, an image is the optical representation of the object illuminated by a radiating source. The main characteristics of images can be defined by the sensor spectral and spatial properties, with the spatial properties of the resulting image also heavily dependent on the sensor platform (which determines the distance from the target object)., [spa] Las existencias mundiales de cereales deben aumentar para satisfacer la creciente demanda. Actualmente, el maíz, el arroz y el trigo son los principales cultivos a nivel mundial, otros cereales como la cebada, el sorgo y la avena están también bien ubicados en la lista. La productividad de los cultivos se ve afectada directamente por factores del cambio climático como el calor, la sequía, las inundaciones o las tormentas. Los investigadores coinciden en que el cambio climático global está teniendo un gran impacto en la productividad de los cultivos. Es por esto que muchos estudios se han centrado en escenarios de cambio climático y más específicamente en estrés abiótico. Por ejemplo, en el caso de estrés por calor, las altas temperaturas entre antesis y llenado de grano pueden disminuir el rendimiento del grano. Para hacer frente al cambio climático y escenarios ambientales futuros, el mejoramiento de plantas es una de las principales alternativas; incluso se considera que las técnicas de mejoramiento contribuyen en mayor medida al aumento del rendimiento que el manejo del cultivo. Los programas de mejora se centran en identificar genotipos con altos rendimientos y calidad para actuar como progenitores y promover los mejores individuos para desarrollar nuevas variedades de plantas. Los mejoradores utilizan los datos fenotípicos, el desempeño de las plantas y los cultivos, y la información genética para mejorar el rendimiento mediante selección (GxE, donde G y E indican factores genéticos y ambientales). El fenotipado plantas está relacionado con las características observables (o medibles) de la planta mientras crece el cultivo, así como con la asociación entre el fondo genético de la planta y su respuesta al medio ambiente (GxE). En el fenotipado tradicional, las mediciones se clasifican manualmente, lo cual es tedioso, consume mucho tiempo y es propenso a errores subjetivos. Sin embargo, hoy en día la tecnología está involucrada en muchas aplicaciones. Desde el punto de vista del fenotipado de plantas, la tecnología se ha incorporado como una herramienta. El uso de técnicas de procesamiento de imágenes que integran sensores y algoritmos son por lo tanto una alternativa para evaluar automáticamente (o semiautomáticamente) estas características.

[eng] Rice (Oryza sativa) is the most important crop for human direct consumption, but its yield and production are strongly affected by biotic and abiotic stresses. Rice is the most salt-sensitive cereal and in addition, salinity is a rising problem around the world reinforced by the climate change effects such as rise of the sea level, soil degradation and water scarcity. Regarding biotic stresses, the apple snail (Pomacea sp.) is one of the worst introduced pest that affects rice production. It has been detected for first time in Europe in Spain, in 2009 in Ebro River Delta, destroying rice fields at seedling stage. Additionally, rice blast, caused by an ascomycete called Pyricularia oryzae, is a disease that strongly affects the rice production worldwide causing yield losses that range from 15% to 50%, even using specific fungicides. The main objective of this thesis is to develop new stress-tolerant rice varieties for the Mediterranean region, by the introgression of the Saltol QTL and new blast resistance genes to Mediterranean local varieties. A molecular marker assisted backcross scheme (using KASP technology) was followed to introgress the salt tolerance traits. The Saltol donor varieties were FL478 and IR64-Saltol, two salt-tolerant Asiatic indica rice lines, while the recurrent parental lines were PL12 and PM37, two Mediterranean japonica rice lines. BC3F3 plants were tested for salt tolerance in hydroponic assays. The standard evaluation system (SES) described by IRRI was used to evaluate the lines. Relative chlorophyll content (RCC, measured with a SPAD), fresh weight and plant length was also recorded. Additionally, two consecutive years of field assays were performed in Ebro River Delta using different foreign and local lines (and their hybrids), to evaluate their general performance and rice blast resistance. From the 4 crosses combination performed between both Saltol donors and both Mediterranean recurrent parents, PL12 x FL478 (LP cross) and PM37 x IR64-Saltol (MS) were selected to proceed with the whole backcrossing process, to determine the return to the recurrent parent genome and to obtain the homozygous Saltol BC3F4 seeds. For the hydroponic assays, 54 BC3LPF3 lines were initially tested since a high variability between lines was observed. From them, some lines like LP-3, LP-15 or LP-17, performed similar or even better in the SES than the salinity donor FL478 line. The RCC data showed again a high variability between lines, although RCC did not correlate with SES results. The data analysis was hindered due to the differences scored between replicates and the fact that much of them were totally dead at the end of the assay. A certain degree of heterozygosity may explain the variability found between replicates during the SES evaluation. The fresh weight (FW) and the plant length in both shoot and root was strongly affected by the salinity treatment. However, the reduction was higher in shoot than in root. Finally, the blast tolerance field assays were severely affected by the rice stem borer Chilo suppressalis, both years. The evaluation for rice blast tolerance was really difficult and no outstanding line was selected to proceed. In conclusion, the Saltol QTL has been successfully introgressed in two Mediterranean japonica rice varieties, although more replicates of the hydroponics assays must be performed to confirm and select the most salt tolerant obtained lines. These lines will be tested in 2018 and 2019 in field assays, under salinized and no salinized conditions. Regarding rice blast resistance field assays, no conclusive results were achieved. More field assays must be done, and other lines should be tested. In order to reduce C. suppressalis infestations, more phytosanitary actions should be taken in the future.

[por] O trabalho aborda a sustentabilidade da cadeia produtiva da mandioca propondo a elaboração de um modelo metodológico para a implementação da avaliação ambiental estratégica (EAE) no contexto de uma cooperativa chamada Coopasub, localizada na cidade de Vitória da Conquista, no sudoeste do Estado brasileiro da Bahia. O centro desta região é da cidade de Vitoria Conquista, juntamente com outros municípios que formam a região sudoeste do Estado. Esta região inclui as cidades de conquista da Vitoria da Conquista, Cândido Sales, Tremedal e Belo Campo, objetos geográficos desta tese e incluídos nos biomas de Mata Atlântica e Caatinga. A tese propõe o desenvolvimento de um plano ambiental avaliado para um caso específico que tem como um desafio contribuir para a integração dos aspectos ambientais na elaboração e aprovação dos planos e programas a fim de promover o desenvolvimento sustentável. Para desenvolver este trabalho, a gestão ambiental e suas ferramentas são as principais bases, não só de modelos tecnológicos, mas também do desenvolvimento dos planos econômicos, sociais e ambientais, uma vez que não é possível aplicar ou desenvolver um plano ambiental sem levar em consideração o conjunto de ferramentas que integram a gestão ambiental. A Cadeia produtiva da mandioca produz uma série de importantes impactos ambientais negativos, tais como processos de erosão do solo causados pelo fogo por causa de desmatamento para aumentar a superfície de cultivo e a produção em grande escala de um resíduo líquido poluente originado durante o processamento da raiz de mandioca, chamado no Brasil de "manipueira". Este resíduo apresenta alta taxa de DBO (Demanda Bioquímica de Oxigênio) e DQO (Demanda Química de Oxigênio); além disto este resíduo tem altas concentrações de ácido cianídrico, contaminante que ainda não se tem conseguido uma adequada gestão nos municípios onde estas raízes são processadas. A lista de impactos é complementada pelo desmatamento intenso que faz com que o cultivo e processamento de mandioca se origina num bioma muito dizimado no Brasil e conhecido sob o nome "caatinga". A taxa de desmatamento efetivamente determinada para a área da pesquisa foi de 1.62%/ano, usando-se a técnica de NDVI (Índice de Vegetação por Diferença Normalizada), medida sobre um período de 8 anos. Esta pesquisa é a primera realizada nesta região e pode ser usada para a tomada de decisão. Também concluiu-se que a redução dos teores de carbono orgânico nestas áreas é muito alta: variando de 0.87% to 1.12%., [eng] This study addresses the sustainability of cassava production chain by proposing the development of a methodological framework for the implementation of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in the context of a cooperative called Coopasub, located in the city of Vitória da Conquista, in the Southwest region of the Brazilian state of Bahia. The center of this region is the city of Vitória da Conquista along with other municipalities such as Cândido Sales, Tremedal and Belo Campo, the geographic issues in this thesis; it is included in the biomes of Atlantic Forest and Caatinga. To develop this study, environmental management and its tools are the core not only of technological models, but also of the development of economic, social and environmental plans. The production chain of cassava produces a number of important negative environmental impacts such as: soil erosion caused initially by fire because of deforestation carried out to increase arable farming surfaces, and large-scale production of a waste liquid pollutant originates during the processing of root cassava, called in Brazil "manipueira". This waste has a high rate of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand); also this residue has high concentrations of hydrogen cyanide, contaminant that has not yet achieved an adequate management in the municipalities where these roots are processed. The list of impacts is complemented by the intense deforestation that the cultivation and processing of cassava causes in a already very decimated biome in Brazil known as Caatinga. The rate of deforestation effectively determined for the whole area of research, using the technique of NDVI (Normalized Difference vegetation index), was 1.62%/ year, measured over a period of 8 years. This research is a first for this region and it can be used for decision-making. Also concluded that the reduction of soil organic carbon in these areas is very high: ranged from 0.87% to 1.12%. This study also presented a methodology for developing sustainability indicators for regional agriculture within the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), with the SEA and SAFE (Sustainability Assessment of Farming and the Environment Framework) methodological framework as starting points. From a wide data collection and selection of environmental impacts through scientific and public participation, the impacts selected were has adjusted to fit the methodological framework, and the impact data was subjected to the decision-making powers of the agents involved and the selected indicators, and when considering the dimensions of sustainability, they were subjected to multicriteria analysis through the use of specific software. This process drew up a specific methodology that can be used for the construction of sustainability indicators in agriculture without losing touch with the SEA goals and the context of the researched area. This methodology was based on the use of a thorough baseline, the selection of a methodological framework appropriate to the agricultural context, the multicriteria analysis through public participation, selected impacts and indicators developed within the dimensions of sustainability, the adequacy of the criteria of the SAFE methodological framework and SEA goals, fully maintaining the links to indicators with the methodological framework and the SEA., [spa] El estudio aborda la sostenibilidad de la cadena productiva de la yuca en un territorio definido, proponiendo la elaboración de un modelo metodológico para poner en práctica la Evaluación Ambiental Estratégica (EAE) en el ámbito agrícola tomando como referencia una cooperativa ya existente (Coopasub). Esta región incluye las ciudades de Vitória da Conquista, Cândido Sales, Tremedal y Belo Campo, objetos geográficos de esta tesis e incluidos en los biomas de la Mata Atlántica y la Caatinga. La tesis propone la elaboración de un plan ambiental evaluado para un caso específico que tiene como reto contribuir a la integración de los aspectos ambientales en la preparación y adopción de planes y programas con la finalidad de promover el desarrollo sostenible. Para el desarrollo de este trabajo, la gestión ambiental y sus herramientas constituyen las principales bases, no sólo de los modelos tecnológicos, sino también de la elaboración de los planes económico, social y ambiental, toda vez que no es posible aplicar o elaborar un plan con implicaciones ambientales sin tener en consideración el conjunto de herramientas que integran la gestión ambiental. La cadena productiva de la yuca produce una serie de importantes impactos ambientales mayoritariamente negativos tales como los procesos de erosión/desertificación del suelo causados por el fuego, que se viene utilizando en las tareas de deforestación para aumentar la superficie de cultivo, y la producción a gran escala de un residuo líquido contaminante, originado durante el procesamiento de la raíz de la yuca, llamado en Brasil “manipueira”. Este residuo, una vez caracterizado presenta un alto índice de DBO (Demanda Bioquímica de Oxígeno) y DQO (Demanda Química de Oxígeno); además presenta elevadas concentraciones de ácido cianhídrico, contaminante para el cual aún no se ha conseguido una adecuada gestión en los municipios donde se procesan estas raíces. La lista de impactos negativos se complementa con la intensa deforestación que el cultivo y procesamiento de la yuca origina en un bioma muy diezmado en Brasil y conocido con el nombre de “caatinga”. La tasa de deforestación efectivamente determinada para el área de búsqueda es 1,62%/ año, utilizando la técnica del NDVI (Índice de Vegetación de Diferencia Normalizada), con medición durante un período de 8 años. Esta investigación es la primera que se hace en esta región y puede ser utilizada para la toma de decisiones. También se concluyó que la reducción de los niveles de carbono orgánico en estas áreas es muy alta: desde 0,87% a 1.12%. Este proceso también ha elaborado una metodología específica que puede ser utilizada para la construcción de indicadores de sostenibilidad en la agricultura sin perder contacto con los objetivos de la EAE y con el contexto del área investigado. De una amplia recopilación y selección de los impactos ambientales a través de la participación científica y pública, los impactos seleccionados fueron ha ajustado para caber el marco metodológico. Los datos del impacto también fueron sometidos a los poderes de decisión de los agentes implicados y los indicadores seleccionados se sometieron a Análisis multicriterio mediante el uso de software específico.

[cat] La disponibilitat de la majoria dels fongs micorízics comestibles depèn de la seva fructificació natural. La formació de bolets està relacionada amb les característiques de l'hàbitat i les condicions climàtiques, però aquestes dades no expliquen ni la dinàmica de la fructificació ni del miceli d’aquests fongs. L’establiment de plantacions a partir de plantes micorizades pot ser una alternativa per a l'obtenció de fongs comestibles ectomicorízics. El progrés de les noves tecnologies en la biologia molecular han permès el desenvolupament, implementació i ús de tècniques per a la traçabilitat dels fongs ectomicorízics comestibles. A la tesi s'ha demostrat que la PCR en temps real, amb el disseny d'oligonucleòtids específics per a la detecció i quantificació de miceli extraradical, ens permet determinar la concentració de miceli present al sòl tant a boscos com a plantacions. La micorizació de plantes amb espècies del complex Boletus edulis s'ha aconseguit en condicions de cultiu pur. S’han dissenyat encebadors i sondes específics per l’amplificació de B. edulis i Tuber melanosporum per PCR en temps real. S’ha estudiat la dinàmica estacional del miceli extraradical, les ectomicorizes i la producció de B. edulis i Lactarius deliciosus, a dos boscos de Sòria. També s’ha quantificat el miceli extraradical de Rhizopogon roseolus (a dues plantacions) i de T. melanosporum (a una plantació), des del seu establiment. Per altra banda s’ha quantificat el miceli extraradical de T. melanosporum en una tofonera natural i en set plantacions (d’uns 20 anys). Finalment, s’ha analitzat l'estructura genètica d’una població de T. melanosporum a una plantació productiva, determinat la distribució dels tipus de compatibilitat al sòl, i els genotips de micorizes i ascocarps fent us de marcadors microsatèl•lits. No s'ha trobat relació directa entre les quantitats de miceli del sòl i la producció per cap de les espècies estudiades, però s’ha correlacionat positivament les estructures vegetatives de B. edulis, R. roseolus i T. melanosporum. Els resultats obren la possibilitat d'utilitzar la quantificació de miceli del sòl per PCR en temps real com un bon indicador de la colonització de les arrels en condicions de camp. Les quantitats de miceli extraradical de B. edulis, L. deliciosus i R. roseolus i les micorizes de T. melanosporum s’han correlacionat amb diferents paràmetres climàtics. Finalment, ha estat possible determinar la distribució dels diferents genotips de T. melanosporum a una plantació, on es va trobar una estructura genètica espacial amb un patró de distribució no aleatori, resultant en zones de camp colonitzat per genets que compartien els mateixos tipus de compatibilitat., [eng] The availability of most edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms depends on their natural fructification. Therefore, mycorrhizal plant production could be an alternative for obtaining ectomycorrhizal edible fungi. The first step to establish a plantation for a certain species of mushrooms is the production of plants, inoculated with the fungus, in order to be outplanted to field. The mycorrhization of plants with species of the Boletus edulis complex has been achieved under pure culture synthesis conditions. The production of B. edulis mycorrhizal plants under nursery conditions could be achieved by acclimation of in vitro-produced mycorrhizal plants, but needs still more research to determine an appropriate procedure. Sporocarp formation of these fungi is linked to habitat characteristics and climate conditions, but these data alone do not explain all the trends of fungal fruiting and dynamics. It could be hypothesized that the amount of soil mycelia could also be related to the production of carpophores. Progress of new technologies in molecular biology and the availability of fungal genomes have led to the development, implementation and use of techniques for the traceability of edible ectomycorrhizal fungi. Through the thesis it has been demonstrated that the real- time PCR technique, with the design of specific oligonucleotides for the detection and quantification of extraradical mycelium in soil, allows us to determine the concentration of soil mycelium in forests and plantations, increasing detection limits over conventional PCR. Specific primers and probes have been designed for B. edulis and Tuber melanosporum for real-time PCR amplification, allowing the traceability of these fungal species in the controlled production of edible mycorrhizal mushrooms. The annual belowground dynamics of extraradical soil mycelium, ectomycorrhizal root tips and sporocarp production of two ectomycorrhizal fungi, B. edulis and Lactarius deliciosus, have been studied in two different pine forests (Pinar Grande and Pinares Llanos, respectively) in Soria in permanent plots. Quantification of extraradical mycelium of Rhizopogon roseolus x Pinus pinea plantations (two in Cabils) and of T. melanosporum x Quercus ilex plantation (one in Cerc), in Catalunya has been carried out from its establishment until 24 or 48 months. T. melanosporum extraradical mycelium has also been quantified by real-time PCR in a natural truffle ground and in seven truffle orchards (around 20 years old) established in Tierra Estella and Valdorba sites (Navarra). Finally, the spatial genetic structure of T. melanosporum population was analyzed in a productive orchard (France). The distribution of the two T. melanosporum mating types was monitored in the soil. Ectomycorrhizas and ascocarps were mapped and genotyped using simple sequence repeat markers and the mating type locus and their genetic profiles were compared. No direct relationships were found between soil mycelium amounts and sporocarp production for any of the studied fungal species, but it was possible to obtain positive correlations between vegetative structures (ectomycorrhiza and extraradical mycelium) for B. edulis, R. roseolus and T. melanosporum. The results obtained open the possibility of using quantification of soil mycelium by real-time PCR as a good indicator for root colonization in field conditions (in natural areas or in manmade orchards), especially when a nondestructive sampling or less time consuming analysis were required. The extraradical mycelial amounts of B. edulis, L. deliciosus and R. roseolus and T. melanosporum mycorrhizas were correlated with climate parameters as temperature, rainfall, solar radiation, relative humidity and evapotranspiration. Moreover, it has been possible to map the distribution of different T. melanosporum genotypes trough the traceability of ascocarps, ectomycorrhizas and soil samples. A pronounced spatial genetic structure was found. A nonrandom distribution pattern of the T. melanosporum was observed, resulting in field patches colonized by genets that shared the same mating types.

[cat] El blat és un dels cereals més cultivats i d’elevada significança a nivell mundial. Amb l’augment de la població i el voler mantenir un elevat rendiment en la producció d’aquest cereal, des de els anys 50 el sistema de control de plagues, males herbes i malalties s’ha dut a terme amb l’ús de productes químics sintètics, els plaguicides. Derivat de l’ús continuat d’aquests productes, a mida que augmenta la demanada per una gestió agrícola més econòmica, creix la preocupació per l'impacte ambiental i la salut humana derivat de l’ús abusiu dels plaguicides, la resistència desenvolupada envers a aquests per les males herbes, i els creixents costos en producció i protecció dels cultius. Tots aquests fets, han portat als productors agrícoles i als científics de molts països a buscar alternatives menys agressives al medi ambient i a la població en general. L’al•lelopatia es pot definir a grans trets com la influència directa d'una substància química, alliberada per una planta, sobre el desenvolupament i creixement d'una altre. Des de que es coneix que els compostos al•leloquímics (provinents del metabolisme secundari) i els seus productes de descomposició juguen un paper important en la resistència d’una planta envers a la lluita contra plagues i males herbes, ha augmentat l’ interès científic per potenciar el seu ús. Per a poder facilitar la comprensió del mecanisme de l’al•lelopatia, és important identificar quins d’ells són presents en la planta. Dins la gran diversitat de molècules procedents del metabolisme secundari de les plantes, els principals compostos amb propietats al•leloquímiques en cereals (Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Secale cereale) pertanyen a la família de les benzoxazinones. Els àcids hidroxàmics s’acumulen a la planta en forma de glucòsids (biològicament inactius) però enzimàticament transformats a les actives aglucones per l’acció de la beta-glucosidasa quan el teixit vegetal es veu danyat i les aglucones són espontàniament degradades a les corresponents benzoxazolinones. Un cop alliberades al sòl, són transformades a traves de factors tan biòtics com abiòtics a altres compostos químics els quals poden tenir una activitat fitotòxica molt més destacada. Tots els òrgans vegetals contenen quantitats variables de substàncies al•lelopàtiques que poden ésser alliberades al medi ambient per mitjà de l’exsudació de les arrels, lixiviació, volatilització i descomposició dels residus de les plantes en el sòl. Amb el principal objectiu de determinar el contingut de compostos al•lelopàtics en plantes de blat i els seus productes de degradació en el sòl agrícola, en diferents varietats de blat cultivades sota diferents sistemes de cultiu, durant el transcurs d’aquesta tesi s’han desenvolupat diverses metodologies per al seu anàlisi, resultant ser més sensibles i selectives que les descrites en bibliografia. Dites metodologies es basen en una extracció per líquids pressuritzats (PLE), seguit d’una purificació de l’extracte i el posterior anàlisi a través de la cromatografia de líquids acoblada a l’espectrometria de masses (LC-MS)., [eng] Wheat is one of the most grains grown and of high significance worldwide. With the increase in population and in order to maintain a high performance in the production of this grain, since the 1950s the system of controlling pests, weeds and diseases, it has been carried out with the use of synthetic chemicals, the pesticides. With increasing the demand for a more economic agricultural management, the concern grows for the impact on the environment and health and the increase of cases of resistance to weeds. All these facts have led farmers and scientists in many countries to find alternatives less aggressive with the environment and the population in general. One of these alternatives is to exploit the allelopathy. The Allelopathy can be defined broadly as the direct influence of a chemical, released by a plant, in the development and growth of another. Since it is known that the allelochemicals compounds (from the secondary metabolism) and its decomposition products play an important role in plant resistance to combat pests and weeds, the scientific interest has increased to promote its use. The thesis discusses applying various techniques of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS to study the presence of allelochemicals compounds, in different parts of wheat (leaves, roots, and seeds) as their degradation products in agricultural soils.