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Tropical cyclones are often accompanied by large amount of precipitation potentially impacting stream hydrochemistry. Global warming is altering typhoon disturbance regime. Little is known about how cyclone changes, especially cyclone‐frequency reduction may affect stream hydrochemistry. In this study, we compared water and nutrient input via precipitation and output via streamflow between a frequent‐typhoon period (2013–2017), with 1.2 typhoon yr−1, and a no‐typhoon period (2018–2022) at a long‐term monitoring site, the Fushan Experimental Forest of Taiwan. Precipitation and streamflow quantities were not different between the two periods because typhoons increased the fluctuation but not the mean of monthly precipitation in the major typhoon months (July–September). Inputs of Mg2+, NO3−, and SO42− via precipitation were greater in the frequent‐typhoon period than the no‐typhoon period while inputs of other ions were not different between the two periods. Only the output of Mg2+ was different between the two periods, greater in the frequent‐typhoon period. Output/input ratio of NO3− was greater in the no‐typhoon period than the frequent‐typhoon period despite the greater input in the frequent‐typhoon period, while no differences were found for others. Increases in mineralization rates due to warming is suggested to be the cause of the greater NO3− output/input ratio during the no‐typhoon period. Relationships between stream discharge and ion export were similar between the two periods both with and without removing typhoon events. The limited variation in hydrochemistry between periods of contrasting cyclone activities suggests high resilience of the undisturbed subtropical forests to changes in cyclone frequency at the decadal scale. Plain Language Summary: Tropical cyclones often bring large quantity of rainfall through which affect stream water quantity and quality. The frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones is changing because of climate change. We examined how reduction in typhoon frequency affects nutrient cycling in a forest watershed by comparing streamwater quality and quantity between a frequent (six) typhoon period (2013–2017) and a no‐typhoon period (2018–2022) in a forest watershed in Taiwan. Surprisingly, although the typhoons brought substantial rainfall, the annual and typhoon season rainfall and streamwater were similar between the two periods. Input and output of most ions were also similar between the two periods. However, NO3− export was higher in the no‐typhoon period, possibly resulting from greater mineralization associated with warmer temperatures. Patterns of ion export in relation to streamwater were also similar between the two periods. Thus, the hydrochemistry of the undisturbed forest was resilent to changes in typhoon frequency. Key Points: A no‐typhoon period (2018–2022) was observed in Taiwan despite an average of two typhoons per year in 1958–2017Relationships between stream discharge and ion export were similar between the two periodsOutput/input ratio of NO3− was greater in the no‐typhoon period despite the greater input in the frequent‐typhoon period [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern corporate success is primarily reliant on a perfect balance of institutional effectiveness, innovation, and sustainability. Therefore, the primary goal of this research is to evaluate the impact of institutional frameworks on corporate innovation in developing countries. To achieve the said objective, we use firm and country data from multiple sources, and the final dataset consists of 24,166 observations from 41 developing countries during 2014–2018. For the analysis, we employ ordered probit and instrumental variable ordered probit regression models. According to the results, the success of corporate innovation in developing countries hinges on the strength of legal, financial, administrative, political, and religious institutions. Moreover, such associations stand out more clearly in nations with strong and stable institutional frameworks. The regression results show that innovative enterprises are more prevalent in strong institutional environments compared to those in poor institutional environments. These results also indicate that a strong rule of law, protection of property rights, easy access to financing, developed financial markets, an ethical environment, control of corruption, a stable political system, a democratic government, religious diversity, and freedom all contribute to corporate innovation. Moreover, institutional efficiency and corporate viability fuel the engine of corporate innovation, encouraging enterprises to create game‐changing products and services. These results contribute to the field of innovation management by considering institutional settings for sustainable development. The results have practical applications for building robust institutions and a creative culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psoriasis can affect individuals of all age groups. While the epidemiology of psoriasis in adults has been extensively studied, there is limited research specifically investigating pediatric cases. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and incidence of skin psoriasis (PsO) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) among pediatric patients in Taiwan. A nationwide cohort of 17 535 patients with psoriatic diseases under the age of 18 was enrolled from the National Health Insurance Research Database for the period 2000–2013, including 16 129 PsO patients and 2022 PsA patients. The age‐ and sex‐standardized prevalence and incidence of pediatric PsO and PsA were calculated. The 2007 yearly reports of age‐ and sex‐specific distribution of the general population was adopted as a standard. The results showed that between 2000 and 2013, the prevalence for pediatric PsO increased from 0.03% to 0.07%, and from 0.003% to 0.014% for pediatric PsA. During the same period, the incidence slightly decreased from 19.81 to 17.55 per 100 000 for pediatric PsO but increased from 1.02 to 5.06 per 100 000 for pediatric PsA. Adolescents (12 to <18 years) had higher prevalence and incidence rates of PsO and PsA than children (aged ≤ 12 years), with no sex difference observed in either age group. PsA preceding PsO was more common among children than adolescents (27.07% vs. 13.46%). This study provides important insights into the prevalence and incidence of psoriatic diseases in the pediatric population. Further research is needed to identify risk factors for pediatric psoriasis and to investigate its long‐term health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epiphytes are often considered to be significantly impacted by precipitation changes because their lack of direct access to soil water. However, few in situ studies have examined how reduction in water availability may affect epiphyte growth. Using a unique stemflow collection and diversion device, we examined the effects of stemflow reduction of 25% and 50% on the growth and leaf traits of two common but distinct epiphyte species in a subtropical forest. One species (Asplenium nidus) has a large substrate, and another (Haplopteris zosterifolia) without known water storage structure. The 25% stemflow reduction had limited effects on the growth and leaf traits of the two epiphytes, indicating that 25% stemflow reduction did not reach the water stress threshold for the two epiphytes. It is also possible that the actual reduction in water availability was less than 25% since epiphytes do not use all available stemflow and there could be other sources of water such as fog and throughfall. The 50% stemflow reduction reduced leaf number and leaf area of H. zosterifolia, but not A. nidus, likely because water stored in the large substrate of A. nidus mitigated the impact of stemflow reduction. The thinner leaves, smaller leaf dry matter content, and lower δ13C of A. nidus than H. zosterifolia support the role of water storage of the substrate of A. nidus on mitigating water stress. The 50% stemflow reduction increased leaf thickness, leaf dry matter content of H. zosterifolia, and thickness of abaxial cuticle layer of both epiphytes but had no effect on δ13C. Stemflow reduction had no effects on nutrient concentration and nutrient ratios of both epiphytes suggesting that the epiphytes were able to maintain stoichiometry. Our results indicate that the epiphytes minimized nonstomatal water loss when environmental dryness increased but maintained stomata conductance, which could be important in minimizing the impacts of drought on plant growth and quickly resuming growth once drought ends. Our study highlights that not all epiphytes are similarly vulnerable to drought and precipitation reduction may change the relative abundance of epiphytes with and without water storage structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical and subtropical forests represent the largest terrestrial carbon pool. Elucidating the carbon sources for soil microbial respiration (Rm) in tropical and subtropical forests is of fundamental importance to the global carbon cycle in a warming world. Based on hourly measurements, we quantified Rm of in situ forest soil and soil cores from a subtropical forest. We found recent photosynthates, not soil organic carbon (SOC), contributed 88% ± 12% of the carbon source fueling Rm. The control of recent photosynthates on Rm is also supported by the close relationship between Rm and photosynthetically active radiation as well as literature data synthesis results. These results challenge conventional models based on the tenet that Rm is mainly regulated by soil temperature in all forest ecosystems. The results imply that the widely observed warming‐induced Rm increases are largely explained by the enhanced input of recent photosynthates in tropical forests, not SOC consumption. Plain Language Summary: Soil is the largest terrestrial carbon pool so that a small change in soil organic carbon (SOC) can have major impact on atmospheric CO2 concentration. The consumption of SOC through microbial respiration is a major pathway of ecosystem carbon loss to the atmosphere. Tropical and subtropical forests contained 55% of the terrestrial carbon stock and many global models predict that warming may accelerate the consumption of SOC via enhancing microbial respiration. However, such predictions often conflict with field warming experiment results. To resolve this issue, we conducted soil microbial respiration measurements at a high‐resolution (i.e., hourly measurements) from both in situ forest soil and soil cores from a subtropical forest. We found recent photosynthates, not SOC, contributed 88% of the carbon source fueling soil microbial respiration. Based on our observations, the widely observed warming induced microbial respiration increase may not lead to depletion of SOC of tropical and subtropical forests if warming enhances forest productivity to fuel microbial respiration. Key Points: Recent photosynthates contributed more of the source carbon fueling soil microbial respiration than soil organic carbon (SOC)Diel and seasonal variation in soil microbial respiration is more related to changes in photosynthetic rates than soil temperatureWarming may not reduce SOC in subtropical forests as enhanced Rm can be largely supported by recent photosynthate inputs [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Low light intensities affect the outbreak of plant diseases. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood.High‐performance liquid chromatography analysis of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) revealed that apoplastic glucose (Glc) levels decreased in response to low light. Conversely, low‐light‐induced susceptibility to Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) DC3000 was significantly alleviated by exogenous Glc treatment. Using cell‐based biolayer interferometry assays, we found that Glc specifically binds to the tomato regulator of G protein signaling 1 (RGS1). Laser scanning confocal microscopy imaging revealed that Glc triggers RGS1 endocytosis, which influences the uncoupling of the RGS1‐Gα (GPA1) and GPA1‐Gβ (SlGB1) proteins, in a dose‑ and duration‐dependent manner.Analysis of G protein single and double mutants revealed that RGS1 negatively regulates disease resistance under low light and is required for Glc‐enhanced defense. Downstream of RGS1‐Glc binding, GPA1 negatively mediates the light‐intensity‐regulated defense, whereas SlGB1 positively regulates this process.These results reveal a novel light‐intensity‐responsive defense system that is mediated by a Glc–RGS1–G protein signaling pathway. This information will be critical for future investigations of how plant cells sense extracellular sugars and adjust defense under different environments, as well as for genetic engineering approaches to improve stress resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Tropical cyclones are large‐scale disturbances that can shape the structure and dynamics of mangrove forests. Although tropical cyclone activity overlaps extensively with the latitudinal distribution of mangrove forests, the relationships between cyclone intensity and frequency and mangrove forest canopy damage and recovery are not understood at the global scale. Using remote sensing data, we examined how mangrove forest structure, climate and cyclone characteristics influence canopy cover loss and recovery dynamics. Location: Global tropics. Time period: 2000–2020. Major taxa studied: Mangrove trees. Methods: Using two satellite‐derived vegetation indices (the enhanced vegetation index and the normalized difference infrared index) from 86 cyclones affecting 56 mangrove sites across the globe, we quantified mangrove canopy loss in relationship to cyclones. Using linear regression and variance decomposition, we identified and ranked significant predictors of cyclone‐induced canopy loss and recovery. Results: Three‐quarters of the studied cyclone disturbances resulted in canopy damage. Stands exposed to high wind speeds and those close to the cyclone paths were more severely damaged, whereas lower damage magnitudes were found in sites with greater past cyclone frequency. Canopy damage was greater in tall mangrove stands but decreased with higher aboveground biomass. The distance from the cyclone path and maximum wind speed were the most important factors, representing > 50% of the explained variation in cyclone damage. There was considerable variation in canopy damage among cyclones, but rates of recovery were similar across all mangrove sites, with the main predictor of recovery time being the degree of canopy loss. Main conclusions: Our results suggest that the resistance of mangrove canopy cover to cyclone disturbance is variably tuned to the cyclone regime and vegetation characteristics, but resilience is inherent to the magnitude of canopy damage because the rate of forest canopy recovery appears to be consistent globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Naturally regenerated forests have been shown to achieve the level of species richness similar to old-growth forests in several decades, but a much longer time is required for them to regain the species composition and structural complexity of typical old-growth forests (Aide et al., 2000; Brown & Lugo, 1990). A culture of conservation: How an ancient forest plantation turned into an old-growth forest reserve - The story of the Wamulin forest Keywords: biodiversity; ecosystem services; old-growth forest; secondary succession; unity between humans and the nature; Wanmulin Nature Reserve EN biodiversity ecosystem services old-growth forest secondary succession unity between humans and the nature Wanmulin Nature Reserve 1014 1024 11 10/11/21 20211001 NES 211001 INTRODUCTION Forest plantations are an important component of global forest cover with a global extent of 294 million ha (FAO, 2020). Thus, it is unwise to interpret the example of the Wanmulin Nature Reserve to claim that forest plantations are ecologically and culturally as valuable as old-growth forests, because it is the multiple centuries of natural succession without human disturbance, not the establishment of forest plantation, that contributes most to the high levels of ecosystem services found in the Wanmulin Nature Reserve. [Extracted from the article]

Objectives Recurrent urinary tract infection (rUTI) is a common infectious disease in women. This study investigated the urothelial cell proliferation, the cytoskeleton, barrier proteins, and inflammatory protein expression in women with rUTIs. Methods: Female patients with recurrent or persistent UTIs were recruited. Bladder mucosal specimens were investigated by Western blot and immunohistochemical staining for the urothelial cytoskeleton proteins cytokeratin 5 (CK5), CK14, and CK20; proteins involved in cellular proliferation, including CD34, sonic hedgehog (SHH), and tumor protein 63 (TP63); barrier proteins zonula occludens 1 (ZO‐1) and E‐cadherin; inflammatory proteins p38 and tryptase; and proapoptotic proteins Bcl2‐associated agonist of cell death protein (BAD), Bcl2‐associated X protein (BAX), and caspase‐3. Women with stress urinary incontinence without bladder symptoms served as controls. Bladder specimens from 18 recurrent UTI patients with rUTIs and 12 persistent UTIs, and 17 controls were analyzed, and protein expressions were compared between the three groups. Results: Cell proliferation protein expression for CD34, SHH, and TP63 was significantly lower in the urothelium of patients with rUTIs than in controls. Expression of CK5 increased, whereas CK20 decreased significantly in rUTIs compared with those of controls. Apoptotic proteins BAD, BAX, and caspase‐3 were significantly higher in patients with rUTIs. However, barrier proteins ZO‐1 and E‐cadherin, and tryptase were not significantly lower in patients with rUTIs. Conclusion: Deficits in expression of proteins involved in urothelial cell proliferation, cytoskeleton, and barrier function were noted in patients with rUTIs. These urothelial deficits may be due to deficient proliferation and differentiation resulting in inadequate urothelial barrier function and further in rUTIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This clinical study used autologous intravesical platelet‐rich plasma (PRP) injections to treat patients with recurrent urinary tract infection (rUTI). Changes in urothelial proliferation, cytoskeleton, and barrier function protein expression after treatment were investigated. Materials: All patients underwent 4‐monthly intravesical PRP injections with 1‐year follow‐up. Successful treatment was defined as ≤2 UTI episodes within the preceding 1 year. Bladder biopsies were performed at the first and fourth PRP injection, and specimens were investigated by Western blot for the proteins sonic hedgehog (Shh), CD34, cytokeratin 5 (CK5), CK14, CK20, zonula occludens‐1 (ZO‐1), E‐cadherin, inflammatory proteins tryptase and p38, apoptotic protein BAX (BCL2‐associated X protein) and caspase‐3, functional proteins M2 (muscarinic receptor 2) and M3, and beta‐adrenoceptor‐3, with glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase used as normalizing protein for quantification. Results: The study enrolled 22 patients with rUTI and 17 controls, with successful outcome in 14 of 22 (63.6%) patients. Compared with controls, Western blot quantification results showed that rUTI patients had lower CD34, CK20, M3, and ZO‐1, but higher CK5, BAX, and caspase‐3 at baseline. The reduced CD34, CK20, M2, and M3 expressions at baseline were significantly increased after repeat PRP injections. Patients with a successful outcome had significant increase of CD34, Shh, CK20, M2, and M3 expressions after PRP injections. Conclusion: Intravesical PRP repeat injections improve the urothelial cell proliferation and increase the CK 20 expression in umbrella cells. PRP repeat injections have a beneficial effect on bladder urothelium‐associated changes in rUTI. Thus, PRP injection may restore urothelial health and prevent UTI recurrence in intractable rUTI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recurrent cutaneous necrotising eosinophilic vasculitis (RCNEV) is a rare disease that was first described in 1994. We report a case of RCNEV treated with corticosteroid, and 18 cases that we identified in the literature. Our review of the literature shows that RCNEV was frequently identified in middle‐aged females from Asia and usually presents as erythematous to purpuric papuloplaques, angio‐oedema on the extremities, as well as peripheral eosinophilia. Histopathologically, RCNEV is characterised by exclusively eosinophilic infiltration around the vascular plexus, the absence of leukocytoclasis and fibrinoid degeneration of vascular walls. Although, RCNEV responds to corticosteroid treatment, relapses have occurred during dose tapering. We also discuss the mechanisms of vascular destruction, the differential diagnosis and steroid‐sparing therapies for RCNEV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Summary: Background: Narrowband ultraviolet B (NB‐UVB) phototherapy is a widely used treatment for various dermatoses. The risk of skin cancer following long‐term NB‐UVB phototherapy has rarely been explored in skin phototypes III‐V. Methods: We conducted a nationwide‐matched cohort study and identified a total of 22 891 psoriasis patients starting NB‐UVB phototherapy from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database during the period 2000‐2013. Cumulative incidences of skin cancers were compared between subjects receiving less than 90 UVB treatments (S‐cohort, N = 13 260) and age‐ as well as propensity score‐matched subjects receiving more than or equal to 90 UVB treatments (L‐cohort, N = 3315). Results: There were no significant differences in the overall cumulative incidences of skin cancers between the two cohorts (log‐rank t test, P = 0.691) during the follow‐up periods. The S‐cohort had a significantly lower prevalence of actinic keratosis when compared with the L‐cohort (0.54% vs 1.00%, P = 0.005). Conclusion: Long‐term NB‐UVB phototherapy does not increase skin cancer risk compared with short‐term NB‐UVB phototherapy in psoriasis patients with skin phototypes III‐V. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Interstitial cystitis (IC), also known as bladder pain syndrome (BPS), is a debilitating chronic disease. There are few treatment options for IC/BPS refractory to current medical therapy. This study investigated the clinical efficacy of intravesical injections of platelet‐rich plasma (PRP) in IC/BPS. Methods: Fifteen patients with IC/BPS received 4 intravesical injections, at 1‐monthly intervals, of 12 mL PRP extracted from 50 mL of the patient's whole blood, followed by cystoscopic hydrodistention. The primary endpoint was the change in O'Leary‐Sant symptom (OSS) index from baseline to 1 month after the 4th PRP injection. Secondary endpoints were changes in pain (measured using a visual analog scale [VAS]), daily frequency, nocturia, functional bladder capacity (FBC), maximum flow rate, voided volume, post‐void residual (PVR) volume, and global response assessment (GRA). Urinary cytokine levels were measured at baseline and 1 month after the 1st PRP treatment. Results: Of the 15 women in the study, 13 completed the 4 injections and follow‐up visits (mean [± SD] age 52.9 ± 12.1 years). The OSS index and VAS pain score decreased significantly and FBC and GRA increased after the 1st PRP injection and lasted until the final endpoint. There was no change in PVR after repeated PRP injections, and all patients were free of urinary tract infections and difficulty urinating. Urinary interleukin (IL)‐2 and IL‐8 concentrations increased significantly after the 1st PRP injection. In patients with reductions in the VAS pain score ≥1, urinary IL‐8 and vascular endothelial growth factor increased. In patients without reductions in the VAS pain score, IL‐6 concentrations increased after PRP injection. Conclusions: Repeated intravesical PRP injections are well tolerated and appear to be safe and effective in medically refractive IC/BPS, providing significant symptom improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Current treatments for interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) are usually unsuccessful in achieving long‐term bladder pain relief and irritable symptom improvement. This study investigated the clinical efficacy of platelet‐rich plasma (PRP) intravesical injections on IC/BPS patients refractory to conventional therapies. Methods: Forty patients received four monthly intravesical injections of 10 mL PRP extracted from 50 mL of whole blood. The primary end‐point was Global Response Assessment (GRA) at 3 months after the 4th PRP injection. Secondary endpoints included changes in O'Leary‐Sant symptom score (OSS), visual analog scale (VAS) of pain, daily frequency, nocturia, functional bladder capacity (FBC), maximum flow rate, voided volume, post‐void residual volume (PVR) from baseline to 3 months after the 4th PRP injection. Results: All 40 patients (37 women and 3 men, aged 55.5 ± 11.1 years) completed the four injections and follow‐up visits. GRA improved after the 1st PRP injection and the satisfaction persists till the primary end‐point. The success rate was 45%, 52%, 70%, 70%, and 67.5% after the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 3 months after the 4th PRP injection, respectively. OSS and VAS also significantly decreased. The PVR did not change after repeated PRP injections, FBC increased, frequency, and nocturia were decreased after PRP injections. All patients were free of urinary tract infection or difficulty urinating. Conclusion: The study demonstrated that repeated intravesical injections of autologous PRP can increase bladder capacity and provide IC symptom improvement in patients with IC/BPS refractory to conventional therapy. Autologous PRP injection is safe and effective in selected patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Controlled experiments have shown that global changes decouple the biogeochemical cycles of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P), resulting in shifting stoichiometry that lies at the core of ecosystem functioning. However, the response of soil stoichiometry to global changes in natural ecosystems with different soil depths, vegetation types, and climate gradients remains poorly understood. Based on 2,736 observations along soil profiles of 0–150 cm depth from 1955 to 2016, we evaluated the temporal changes in soil C‐N‐P stoichiometry across subtropical China, where soils are P‐impoverished, with diverse vegetation, soil, and parent material types and a wide range of climate gradients. We found a significant overall increase in soil total C concentration and a decrease in soil total P concentration, resulting in increasing soil C:P and N:P ratios during the past 60 years across all soil depths. Although average soil N concentration did not change, soil C:N increased in topsoil while decreasing in deeper soil. The temporal trends in soil C‐N‐P stoichiometry differed among vegetation, soil, parent material types, and spatial climate variations, with significantly increased C:P and N:P ratios for evergreen broadleaf forest and highly weathered Ultisols, and more pronounced temporal changes in soil C:N, N:P, and C:P ratios at low elevations. Our sensitivity analysis suggests that the temporal changes in soil stoichiometry resulted from elevated N deposition, rising atmospheric CO2 concentration and regional warming. Our findings revealed that the responses of soil C‐N‐P and stoichiometry to long‐term global changes have occurred across the whole soil depth in subtropical China and the magnitudes of the changes in soil stoichiometry are dependent on vegetation types, soil types, and spatial climate variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: China manages the largest monoculture plantations in the world, with 24% being Chinese fir plantations. Maximizing the ecosystem services of Chinese fir plantations has important implications in global carbon cycle and biodiversity protection. Assisted natural regeneration (ANR) is a practice to convert degraded lands into more productive forests with great ecosystems services. However, the quantitative understanding of ANR ecosystem service benefits is very limited. We conducted a comprehensive field manipulation experiment to evaluate the ANR potentials. We quantified and compared key ecosystem services including surface runoff, sediment yield, dissolved organic carbon export, plant diversity, and aboveground carbon accumulation of ANR of secondary forests dominated by Castanopsis carlesii to that of Chinese fir and C. carlesii plantations. Our results showed that ANR of C. carlesii forest reduced surface runoff and sediment yield up to 50% compared with other young plantations in the first 3 years and substantially increased plant diversity. ANR also reduced the export of dissolved organic carbon by 60–90% in the first 2 years. Aboveground biomass of the young ANR forest was approximately 3–4 times of that of other young plantations, while aboveground biomass of mature ANR forests was approximately 1.4 times of that of mature Chinese fir plantations of the same age. If all Chinese fir plantations in China were replaced by ANR forests, potentially 0.7 Pg more carbon will be stored in aboveground in one rotation (25 years). The results indicate that ANR triggers positive feedbacks among soil and water conservation, biodiversity protection, and biomass accumulation and thereby enhances ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions What are the effects of replacing mixed species natural forests with Cryptomeria japonica plantations on understorey plant functional and species diversity? What is the role of the understorey light environment in determining understorey diversity and community in the two types of forest? Location Subtropical northeast Taiwan. Methods We examined light environments using hemispherical photography, and diversity and composition of understorey plants of a 35-yr C. japonica plantation and an adjacent natural hardwood forest. Results Understorey plant species richness was similar in the two forests, but the communities were different; only 18 of the 91 recorded understorey plant species occurred in both forests. Relative abundance of plants among different functional groups differed between the two forests. Relative numbers of shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant seedling individuals were also different between the two forest types with only one shade-intolerant seedling in the plantation compared to 23 seedlings belonging to two species in the natural forest. In the natural forest 11 species of tree seedling were found, while in the plantation only five were found, and the seedling density was only one third of that in the natural forest. Across plots in both forests, understorey plant richness and diversity were negatively correlated with direct sunlight but not indirect sunlight, possibly because direct light plays a more important role in understorey plant growth. Conclusions We report lower species and functional diversity and higher light availability in a natural hardwood forest than an adjacent 30-yr C. japonica plantation, possibly due to the increased dominance of shade-intolerant species associated with higher light availability. To maintain plant diversity, management efforts must be made to prevent localized losses of shade-adapted understorey plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions How do frequent disturbances of varying intensity affect heterogeneity of canopy openness and resulting regenerating tree diversity in subtropical rain forests? How does canopy gap pattern and regeneration time of a forest experiencing frequent but unpredictable typhoon disturbance vary over 17 yr? How is the understorey light environment influenced by canopy gaps in a forest experiencing frequent defoliation? Compared to non-gap areas, do gaps provide unique niches reflected in different seedling communities? Location Natural evergreen hardwood forest, northeastern Taiwan. Methods We examined gap characteristics, light availability and variability, and seedling diversity in both gaps and non-gaps in a subtropical forest with frequent typhoon disturbance, and compared the results to a survey at the same site conducted in 1995 following six typhoons in 1994. Results Gaps were smaller and covered a much smaller proportion of the forest in the 2012 survey (mean gap size 10 m2, 3.3% of the forest) than the 1995 survey (33 m2 and 10%). Canopy regeneration times estimated from the 2012 survey (200-400 yr) were much longer than those based on the 1995 survey (50-175 yr). Neither light availability nor variability differed between gaps and non-gaps, so gaps ostensibly did not provide a unique niche space. There were no seedling species occurring exclusively in gaps, and very high plant community similarity (>90%) between gaps and non-gaps. Conclusions In ecosystems with small canopy gaps resulting from frequent disturbance, gaps play a neutral role in understorey light environment and thus provide no unique niches and play a neutral role in plant diversity. Our study also suggests that measures of gap area, occurrence and forest turnover should be taken multiple times, during years with varying background disturbance rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese fir ( Cunninghamia lanceolata) is the most important forest plantation species in subtropical Asia and is rapidly replacing natural forests. Such land-use change may affect ecosystem nutrient cycling through changes in litterfall nutrient flux. Tropical cyclones often cause pulses of litterfall. Previous studies, however, have mostly focused on the effects of a single cyclone with little effort examining the effects of repeated cyclones. We examined litterfall in a natural hardwood forest and a Chinese-fir plantation in central Taiwan experiencing an average of one typhoon per year. The natural hardwood forest had 54 percent higher annual litterfall (11,400 kg/ha/yr) than the Chinese-fir plantation (7400 kg/ha/yr). Four typhoon-affected months (typhoon period) contributed to approximately 60 percent of the litterfall and litterfall element flux in the natural hardwood forest and 80 percent in the Chinese-fir plantation, with contributions from individual typhoons varied by more than twofold. Litterfall N and P concentrations were significantly higher in typhoon period than in non-typhoon period, likely the result of limited retranslocation. Precipitation was a better predictor of quantity of typhoon-associated litterfall than wind velocity. Both types of forests in southeastern China beyond the reach of typhoons have litterfall peaks in the dry season. In contrast, we measured higher litterfall during the typhoon period than during the dry season, suggesting that in regions with frequent cyclones, cyclones drive temporal variation of litterfall. Global climate change is affecting the frequency and intensity of cyclones; therefore, knowledge of typhoon-litterfall dynamics is indispensable for understanding the effects of climate change on ecosystem nutrient cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mesenchymal stem cells ( MSCs) have been shown to improve the outcome of acute renal injury models; but whether MSCs can delay renal failure in chronic kidney disease ( CKD) remains unclear. In the present study, the were cultured in media containing various concentrations of basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor and ascorbic acid 2-phosphate to investigate whether hepatocyte growth factor ( HGF) secretion could be increased by the stimulation of these growth factors. Then, TGF-β1-treated renal interstitial fibroblast ( NRK-49F), renal proximal tubular cells ( NRK-52E) and podocytes were co-cultured with conditioned MSCs in the absence or presence of ascorbic acid 2-phosphate to quantify the protective effects of conditioned MSCs on renal cells. Moreover, male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with 1 × 106 conditioned MSCs immediately after 5/6 nephrectomy and every other week through the tail vein for 14 weeks. It was found that basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor and ascorbic acid 2-phosphate promoted HGF secretion in MSCs. Besides, conditioned MSCs were found to be protective against TGF-β1 induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of NRK-52E and activation of NRK-49F cells. Furthermore, conditioned MSCs protected podocytes from TGF-β1-induced loss of synaptopodin, fibronectin induction, cell death and apoptosis. Rats transplanted with conditioned human MSCs had a significantly increase in creatinine clearance rate, decrease in glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis and increase in CD4+ CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells counts in splenocytes. Together, our studies indicated that conditioned MSCs preserve renal function by their anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects. Transplantation of conditioned MSCs may be useful in treating CKD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Hepatitis B virus Ag (HBsAg), a major antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBV), is also a vaccine component for prevention of HBV infection. Dendritic cells (DCs) of HBV carriers reportedly exhibit functional impairment. In this study, the aim was to investigate the effect of HBsAg on activation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MD-DCs), and the subsequent signal transduction pathway. Treatment of MD-DCs with HBsAg resulted in enhanced cell surface expression of cluster of differentiation 80, CD83, CD86 and major histocompatibility complex class II, and increased interleukin (IL)-12 p40, IL-12p70, and IL-10 production. Furthermore, HBsAg treatment of MD-DCs with HBsAg resulted in enhanced T cell-stimulatory capacity and increased T cell secretion of interferon and IL-10. The pathway of MD-DCs activation by HBsAg was further investigated in the present study. Inhibition of nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B (κB) by helenalin and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) by SB203580 prevented production of IL-12 p40, IL-12 p70, and IL-10. HBsAg also augmented MAPK phosphorylation. Thus, cytokine secretion of human MD-DCs by HBsAg is blocked by inhibition of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK pathways. Likewise, decreased inhibition of kappa B alpha concentrations and MAPK phosphorylation are critical for MD-DC maturation by HBsAg. These findings may provide a strategy for improving the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of vaccines and tumor therapies that utilize these pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a randomized clinical trial which evaluates the efficacy and safety of T-614 antirheumatic agent versus methotrexate (MTX) in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The results of the study indicated that T-614 therapy given at 50 milligram (mg)/day is as effective as MTX therapy in the 24 week trial, representing a new option for the treatment of RA. There was also no significant adverse cardiovascular events and gastrointestinal ulcers found in the T-614 groups.

We isolated and characterized a 4.8-kb 5′ flanking region of the rat A2A adenosine receptor (A2A-R) gene in the present study. Promoter activity was observed with this DNA fragment in PC12 cells and C6 cells which contain endogenous A2A-Rs. A fusion fragment consisting of the 4.8-kb promoter-proximal DNA fragment of the A2A-R gene, and the coding region of lacZ was utilized to produce mice harbouring the fusion gene. In three independent founder lines, proteins and transcripts of the transgene were found in many areas of the central nervous system (CNS), but not in three peripheral tissues examined. Double immunohistochemical analyses revealed that the transgene was coexpressed with endogenous A2A-R and proper neuronal markers in the brain. Specifically, the transgene in the striatum was found in the enkephalin-containing GABAergic neurons and in the cholinergic neurons as was found for the endogenous A2A-R. However, a selectively enriched striatal expression of the transgene was not found as was observed for the endogenous A2A-R. Collectively, the 4.8-kb promoter-proximal DNA fragment of the rat A2A-R gene contains important element(s) to direct its expression in the CNS where functional A2A-R are found, but were not sufficient to confer the highly concentrated expression of the striatal A2A-R. Furthermore, expressions of A2A-R and the transgene were found in both neurons and astrocytes, suggesting that adenosine might mediate its function through A2A-R in both cell types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although alcohol abusers are known to have higher incidences of hemorrhagic cerebrovascular diseases, it is not known whether these changes are associated with ethanol (EtOH) action on nitric oxide (NO) production in the cerebrovascular cells. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of EtOH treatment on basal and cytokine-induced NO production in cortical pial cultures. Methods: Cell cultures for this study included murine primary pial vascular cells, primary glial cells and cortical neurons. These cells were exposed to cytokines or EtOH for 24 to 48 hr. The culture media were used for measurement of nitrite, as an indication for NO release, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), as an index of cell membrane integrity. In addition, immunocytochemical determinations were carried out to identify cell types and to assess inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Results: Exposure of primary pial vascular cultures to cytokines that consisted of interleukin-1β (IL-1β; 250 pg/mL) and interferon-γ (IFNγ; 2 ng/mL) or to EtOH (50 to 100 mM) for 24 to 48 hr significantly elevated NO production. NO production could be attenuated by N-nitro-L-arginine (N-arg), a nonspecific NOS inhibitor, or aminoguanidine (AG), an iNOS inhibitor. Increased iNOS immunoreactivity was observed in cytokines- or EtOH-treated pial cells. When pial cells were cocultured with cortical neurons, prolonged EtOH exposure led to a large increase in NO production as well as LDH release. However, this increase was not observed in pial culture alone or in mixed cortical culture. Nevertheless, inhibition of NO production with N-arg or AG did not alter the EtOH-induced LDH release in the pial cells cocultured with cortical neurons. Conclusion: These results show that EtOH exposure led to increased production of NO in primary pial cell culture. In mixed culture that contained cortical neurons and pial cells, EtOH induced increase in NO as well as LDH release, which is an indication of loss of cell membrane integrity. However, EtOH-mediated LDH release in mixed cortical pial cultures was not a consequence of the increase in NO production by these cells. Studies that use mixed cortical-pial cultures may provide a unique in vitro system for examining the interactions among glial cells, neurons, and cerebrovascular cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The rat A[sub 2A] adenosine receptor (A[sub 2A]-R) gene contains two promoters, P1 and P2, which produce transcript I and transcript 2, respectively. These transcripts differ in the lengths of their 5' untranslated regions (5'UTRI: 514 bp, initiated from P1; 5'UTR2:221 bp, initiated from P2) but encode the same protein. In the present study, we demonstrate that transcript 2 is present in various tissues at different levels, whereas transcript I is found only in the striatum. In the striatum, the level of transcript 2 is Is similar to 300-fold higher than that of transcript 1. The 5'UTR of both transcripts suppresses the expression of A[sub 2A]-R and a firefly luciferase reporter gene at the translational level; this suppression is not observed after mutational inactivation of an "out-offrame" upstream AUG codon. Translational suppression by the 5'UTR was also confirmed in cells using a bicistronic strategy. Collectively, these data suggest that P2 is the major promoter of the rat A[sub 2A]-R gene. The 5'UTR of the rat A[sub 2A]-R gene exerts an inhibitory effect on translation by an upstream open reading frame. Because the 5'UTR of the A[sub 2A]-R gene possesses strong interspecies homology, translational suppression may be a general mechanism by which the expression of the A[sub 2A]-R gene is regulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the presence of ATP, MgCl2, and CoASH, somal plasma membranes isolated from rat cerebral cortex were active in transferring arachidonic acid to phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidylcholines, and triacylglycerols. Ethanol (350-525 mM) added to the incubation mixture inhibited arachidonic acid incorporation into phospholipids, while it enhanced the incorporation into triacylglycerols. Under these conditions, ethanol was found to react with arachidonic acid to form arachidonoyl ethyl ester. The incorporation of labeled arachidonic acid into glycerolipids as well as the synthesis of ethyl esters required the presence of ATP and CoASH for maximal activity. Nevertheless, each uptake process exhibited a unique pH profile. The esterification of arachidonic acid was not specific for ethanol as other aliphatic alcohols (e.g., propanol and butanol) were also able to react with labeled arachidonic acid to form the respective esters. Somal plasma membranes isolated from mice after chronic ethanol administration showed an increase in arachidonoyl transfer to both phospholipids and triacylglycerols. When these membranes were challenged with ethanol (325 mM), those isolated from the chronic ethanol group showed a greater increase in the labeling of triacylglycerols and ethyl esters than those from controls. Thus, different acyltransferases exhibite different responses to the effects of ethanol in vitro and in vivo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although ethanol is known for its central depressant action, its effect on the polyphosphoinositide (poly-Pl) signal transduction activity in brain has not been examined in detail. In this study, C57BI/6J mice were injected intracerebrally with [3H]inositol, and poly-PI turnover in brain was assessed by determining the levels of labeled inositol monophosphates (IP1) accumulated after intraperitoneal injection of LiCl (6 meq/kg body weight) 4 hr before killing. Using this experimental protocol, acute ethanol administration (by gavage) resulted in time- and dose-dependent decreases in the levels of labeled IP1 in both cerebrum and cerebellum as compared with controls. The ethanol-induced decrease in labeled IP1 correlated well with the decrease in levels of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (as measured by the radioreceptor assay) and the increase in blood ethanol concentration. Despite a 4-fold higher accumulation of labeled IP1 in the cerebrum compared with the cerebellum, there were no major differences in the steady-state levels of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (based on tissue weight) in either brain region. Intraperitoneal injection of atropine (50 mg/kg) (a muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist) to the lithium-treated mice resulted in a 34% decrease in labeled IP1 as compared with controls. This result suggests that a substantial proportion of the signals transduced were due to activation of the muscarinic cholinergic receptor. Administration of ethanol (5 g/kg) to the atropine-treated mice resulted in a further decrease in labeled IP1 and longer sleep time as compared with those given ethanol alone. Taken together, these results indicate a relationship between the acute effect of ethanol and the poly-PI signaling activity in brain and modulation of the ethanol effect by compounds affecting the poly-PI signaling pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lipids of Drosophila heads were extracted and separated by high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Fatty acid compositions of major phospholipids as well as of triglycerides were analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography. Proportions of the major fatty acids (14∶0, 16∶0, 16∶1, 18∶0, 18∶1, 18∶2, 18∶3) varied depending on the lipid analyzed. Docosahexaenoic acid (22∶6), common in vertebrate photoreceptors and brain, and arachidonic acid (20∶4), a precursor of eicosanoids, were lacking. A comparison of the fatty acid composition of the diet vs. the head suggested that Drosophila can desaturete but may not be able to elongate fatty acid carbon chains. Fatty acid analyses were carried out after the following visual system alterations: i) the transduction mutant where no receptor potential results from a deficit in phospholipase C; ii) an allele of eyes absent; iii) the mutant outer rhabdomeres absent which lacks visual pigment and rhabdomeres in the predominant type of compound eye receptor, rhabdomeres 1 through 6; and iv) carotenoid deprivation which reduces opsin and rhabdomere size. We also evaluated aging by comparing newly-emerged vs. aged wild-type flies. Alterations in fatty acid composition based on some of these manipulations were found. Based on comparisons between flies reared on media differing in C and C, there is an indication that diet readily affects tissue fatty acid composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A procedure was developed to label phospholipids in Drosophila heads by feeding radioactive phosphate (P). High-performance thin-layer chromatography showed label incorporation into various phospholipids. After 24 h of feeding, major phospholipids labeled were phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), 47%; phosphatidylcholine (PC), 24%; and phosphatidylinositol (PI), 12%. Drosophila heads have virtually no sphingomyelin as compared with mammalian tissues. Notable label was in ethanolamine plasmalogen, lysophosphatidylethanolamine, lysophosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylinositol. Less than 1% of the total label was in phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Other lipids labeled included phosphatidylserine, phosphatidic acid and some unidentified lipids. A time course (3-36 h) study revealed a gradual decrease in proportion of labeled PI, an increase in proportion of labeled PC and no obvious change in labeled PE. There were no significant differences in phospholipid labeling comparing the no receptor potential ( norpA) visual mutant and wild type under light vs. dark conditions. However, overallP labeling was higher in the wild type fed in the light as compared to the dark and to norpA either in light or dark. This suggests that functional vision facilitates incorporation of label. Differences in phospholipid labeling were observed between young and aged flies, particularly in lysophospholipids and poly-PI, implicating phospholipase A function in recycling. Manipulations such as the outer rhabdomeres absent and eyes absent mutants and carotenoid deprivation failed to yield notable differences in phospholipid labeling pattern, suggesting that phospholipids important to vision may constitute only a minor portion of the total labeled pool in the head. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the presence of ATP, MgCl and CoASH, different subcellular membrane fractions isolated from rat cerebral cortex exhibited characteristic profiles for the incorporation of [1-C]arachidonic acid into phospholipids and triacylglycerols. In general, uptake of label by phosphatidylcholines was higher in the synaptic membranes, and that by phosphatidylinositols was higher in the microsomes and somal plasma membranes. A substantial amount of the labeled arachidonate was also incorporated into triacylglycerols, especially in the somal plasma membranes and microsomes. Enzymes mediating the transfer of arachidonic acid to phospholipids were unstable with respect to sample storage and exposure to elevated temperatures. In contrast, the acyltransferase for triacylglycerols was more stable to these factors. Washing the membranes with bovine serum albumin resulted in an enhancement of the incorporation of label into phosphatidylinositols without affecting that of phosphatidylcholines, but the incorporation into triacylglycerols was inhibited. Treatment of synaptosomes and plasma membranes with saponin resulted in an enhancement in the labeling of phospholipids, but the labeling of triacylglycerols was inhibited. Thus, although labeled arachidonic acid was incorporated into phospholipids and triacylglycerols in brain subcellular membranes, these two types of acyltransferases exhibited different properties and responded differently to membrane perturbing agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stemflow is the most importance source of water and nutrients to epiphytes growing on tree stems that lack access to canopy soils. Many host trees are inhabited by a large number of epiphyte species, often growing in close proximity. The nutrient and water relationships among such co‐occurring epiphytes are largely unknown. We examined stemflow quality and quantity before and after passing through a substrate‐forming epiphyte, Asplenium nidus, and two nonsubstrate‐forming epiphytes, Haplopteris flexuosa and Liparis nakaharai, in a subtropical rainforest in Taiwan. The results indicate that stemflow quantity decreased after passing through these epiphytes. The magnitude of decreases was large for H. flexuosa (63%) and L. nakaharai (74%) but minor for A. nidus (5.6%), possibly because the vertical leaves of the latter collected throughfall, compensating for the water they retained. There was an overall decrease in stemflow ion concentrations after passing through A. nidus, likely due to greater retention than leaching of ions, but an overall increase after passing through L. nakaharai and H. flexuosa, possibly the result of greater leaching than retention. Our results indicate that epiphytes growing under A. nidus received more stemflow with few nutrients and those growing under the two nonsubstrate‐forming epiphytes received less stemflow but with more nutrients. Currently, the growth of epiphytes is limited by water at the study site, so that Asplenium provides favourable microhabitat for epiphytes growing below. If climate change lead to drier conditions, substrate‐forming epiphytes could become oases in the forest canopy desert and attract more epiphytes to grow underneath. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canopy‐opening disturbance such as thinning has immediate and substantive effects on understory microclimate and therefore the establishment and growth of understory plants. A large number of studies have reported the effects of thinning on tree growth, but few studies have examined long‐term effects of thinning on understory light environments and species and functional diversity of understory plants. Even less is known whether the change in understory plant community structure observed following canopy disturbance is short‐lived and would diminish as the canopy closes or a long lasting due to legacy effects. We examined the effects of an experimental removal of 25% and 50% of the woody vegetation on understory light availability and variability on understory plant community structure in a subtropical Cryptomeria japonica plantation nine years after the treatment. Differences in availability of understory light among treatments diminished nine years after the experimental vegetation removal (thinning), but variability of understory light was still two times higher in the thinned treatments than the un‐thinned control. Species diversity of dominant and common understory plants was lower in the control than in the two thinning treatments, which were not different from each other. Community species and functional composition were also different between the un‐thinned control and the two thinning treatments. The thinned plots had proportionally more individuals of grasses and forbs and fewer individuals of ferns. Our results indicate that the effects of thinning on understory light variability last longer than on light availability representing an important and long‐lasting alteration of resource heterogeneity. At both species and functional group levels, greater diversity and unique composition in the thinned treatments compared to undisturbed control suggest a link between resource heterogeneity and biodiversity in the forest understory or legacy effects associated with the thinning‐induced changes in understory plant community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study of a 53-year-old man who presented with a 1-week history of the acute onset of low back pain and fatigue, diagnosed with acute myeloid leukaemia with recurrent genetic abnormality.

Eight rainfalls were intensively sampled in a subtropical rain forest in northeastern Taiwan. This study, carried out at Fu-shan Experimental Forest was designed to examine variability of throughfall characteristics. The volume and chemistry of the throughfall associated with individual rains have a high degree of spatial variability, with throughfall chemistry more variable than volume. When data from all of the storms were combined, there was lower variability than that seen with individual storms, largely as a result of a lack of consistent storm to storm spatial variation. Thus, individual storms cannot be used to represent the seasonal or annual pattern of spatial variation in throughfall chemistry or volume of the study forest. Twenty sampleswere required to estimate throughfall volume within 10 percent of the population mean with 95 percent confidence for individual storms. Yet, more than 100 samples were required to estimate the throughfall chemistry of some ions (e.g., H+). When the data from all eight stormswere combined, 7, 20, and 25 samples were necessary to estimate throughfall volume, ion concentrations, and ion fluxes (except for Mg{sup}2+{end} and H+) within 10 percent of the population mean with 95 percent confidence. In the absence of estimates of spatial variation, differences in sampling protocols among throughfall studies make comparisons of throughfall characteristics difficult. In this study three funnels were used in tandem to capture small scale variability at eachsample location, thus reducing spatial variability of throughfall chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We isolated and characterized a 4.8-kb 5' flanking region of the rat A2A adenosine receptor (A2A-R) gene in the present study. Promoter activity was observed with this DNA fragment in PC12 cells and C6 cells which contain endogenous A2A-Rs. A fusion fragment consisting of the 4.8-kb promoter-proximal DNA fragment of the A2A-R gene, and the coding region of lacZ was utilized to produce mice harbouring the fusion gene. In three independent founder lines, proteins and transcripts of the transgene were found in many areas of the central nervous system (CNS), but not in three peripheral tissues examined. Double immunohistochemical analyses revealed that the transgene was coexpressed with endogenous A2A-R and proper neuronal markers in the brain. Specifically, the transgene in the striatum was found in the enkephalin-containing GABAergic neurons and in the cholinergic neurons as was found for the endogenous A2A-R. However, a selectively enriched striatal expression of the transgene was not found as was observed for the endogenous A2A-R. Collectively, the 4.8-kb promoter-proximal DNA fragment of the rat A2A-R gene contains important element(s) to direct its expression in the CNS where functional A2A-R are found, but were not sufficient to confer the highly concentrated expression of the striatal A2A-R. Furthermore, expressions of A2A-R and the transgene were found in both neurons and astrocytes, suggesting that adenosine might mediate its function through A2A-R in both cell types.